Charles is summoned by the Archangel Gabriel, who is throughout the poem God’s
messenger to the patriarchal figure of the emperor, to further efforts against the Muslims
far away. Charles is deeply unwilling to go, but we know that he will not fail.
However he himself composed, the poet of the Chanson de Roland drew on what were
surely well-worn formulaic expressions and metric techniques belonging to a tradition of
sung epic. How he uses these expressions and techniques is what sets him apart. His
exploitation of the laisse is particularly striking: in the Roland, the laisses remain
relatively short, fewer than fourteen lines on average, so that most have a unity that is
often absent in later poems. Each is like a good paragraph, dealing comprehensively with
one motif or unit of narration; the first and last lines often link thematically across the
boundaries of the laisses and are frequently lapidary and memorable. Although epic is
primarily a narrative genre, the laisses are sometimes grouped in twos or threes (laisses
similaires and laisses parallèles), where a single event or conversation is repeated on
different assonances to produce an emphasis on important elements of story or
motivation, as well as to provide a lyrical pause. Other poems have such devices, but the
Roland-poet is a particularly skillful exponent of the technique: see, for example, the first
horn scene, which is formally perfect in a static mode, or the three laisses leading up to
the death of Roland, where the technique is used in a more dynamic way. The poet is a
master of concise, evocative use of words, within the limitations imposed by the
formulaic epic tradition; he rarely uses formulae in a mechanical way, and his use of
repetition links laisses and episodes with recall and echo. Flashback techniques are
sometimes reminiscent of the cinema, as when Roland sounds his horn and we see the
effect alternately on the main army and on him. The poet revels in colors, bright light
reflecting from armor and weapons, the sound of trumpets and horns. His sober,
economical, yet vivid descriptions give an immediacy to his scenes; hearers or readers
feel that they are spectators of events. This remains true in spite of the omnipresent epic
idealization—exaggeration of numbers of combatants and the power of blows, the
emphasis on single combats and battle scenes.
Executed with precision, variety, and evocative language, this poem, like other
chansons de geste, nevertheless exploits to a considerable extent essentially dramatic
techniques. Some 40 percent of the text consists of direct speech; we learn about the
characters by what they say and do rather than by the poet’s analysis. Although we do not
usually expect to find detailed psychological analysis in epic poetry, the characters of the
Chanson de Roland ring remarkably true, at least over the range of emotions and beliefs
the poet needs to show. They express themselves in dialogue that is concise, telling, and
suitable. The traditional formulaic style does not prevent the individualization of the
characters; compare, for example, the first words of Roland with those of Ganelon. This
characterization remains subordinate to the development of the action, but it is done with
precision.
The importance of the issues that the poem addresses, and the passion with which they
are debated; the precision and affectivity of the language; the dignity, order, and sober
understatement of the most moving moments; the dramatic technique that involves the
hearer—all this makes the Chanson de Roland one of the great epics of the world and a
brilliant opening to the rich 12th century.
In spite of its clarity, the Roland provokes debate. One of its liveliest controversies is
over the interpretation of the moral conception of the subject. Traditional exegesis held
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