steady demand for university graduates, and after the mid-14th century an increasing
percentage of French lawyers were laymen with university degrees.
Charles Radding
[See also: ABÉLARD, PETER; ADAM DU PETIT-PONT; ARISTOTLE,
INFLUENCE OF; EDUCATION; GILBERT OF POITIERS; INNOCENT III; JOHN OF
SALISBURY; MONTPELLIER; PALEOGRAPHY AND MANUSCRIPTS; PARENS
SCIENTIARUM; PARIS; PETER LOMBARD; ROBERT DE COURÇON; ROBERT OF
MELUN; SCHOLASTICISM; SCHOOLS, CATHEDRAL; SCHOOLS, MONASTIC;
THIERRY OF CHARTRES; WILLIAM OF CHAMPEAUX]
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Renewal in the Twelfth Century, ed. Robert L.Benson and Giles Constable with Carol
D.Lanham. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982, pp. 138–72.
——. Masters, Princes and Merchants: The Social Views of Peter the Chanter and His Circle. 2
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Ferruolo, Stephen. “Parisius-Paradisus: The City, Its Schools, and the Origins of the University of
Paris.” In The University and the City: From Medieval Origins to the Present, ed. Thomas
Bender. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988, pp. 22–43.
——. The Origins of the University: The Schools of Paris and Their Critics, 1100–1215. Stanford:
Stanford University Press, 1985.
Kibre, Pearl. The Nations in the Medieval Universities. Cambridge: Mediaeval Academy of
America, 1948.
Leff, Gordon. Paris and Oxford Universities in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries. New
York: Wiley, 1968.
Post, Gaines. “Alexander III, the Licentia docendi and the Rise of the Universities.” In Anniversary
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——.“Parisian Masters as a Corporation, 1200–1246.” Speculum 9(1934):421–45.
Rashdall, Hastings. The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, ed. Frederick M.Powicke and
Alfred B.Emden. new ed. 3 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1936.
Rouse, Richard H., and Mary A.Rouse. “The Book Trade at the University of Paris, ca. 1250–ca.
1350.” In Authentic Witnesses: Approaches to Medieval Texts and Manuscripts, ed. Mary
A.Rouse and Richard H.Rouse. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1991, pp. 259–
338.
Southern, Richard W. “The Schools of Paris and the School of Chartres.” In Renaissance and
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Press, 1944.
URBAN IV
(r. 1261–64). Pope. After the death of Alexander IV in 1261, the eight surviving cardinals
were unable to elect one of themselves pope. At last, they selected Jacques Pantaléon,
titular patriarch of Jerusalem, who was on a mission to the Holy Land. Jacques, of low
birth but a protegé of Innocent IV, had wide experience but no ties to Italian politics. As
Pope Urban IV, he gained control of the papal states and rebuilt the Guelf alliance against
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