By the mid-12th century, Rashi’s grandsons, Rabbi Jacob ben Meir of Ramerupt
(1100–1171) and Rabbi Samuel ben Meir (Rashbam; 1080–1160), had become the most
prominent rabbinic authorities in France. In his commentary on the Pentateuch, Rashbam
indicates that he wishes to continue the work of his grandfather Rashi. He focused on the
Peshat, or plain, meaning of the biblical text. He extends the meaning of Peshat by
claiming to seek the ‘Iqqar Peshuto, the fundamental plain meaning, of the Bible. This
means that he seeks the explanations of difficult words or phrases by connecting them
with passages from the same context. Rashbam does not rely on classical rabbinic
interpretations but rather refers to human custom and the natural world in his
commentaries.
The focus on explaining the biblical text independent of rabbinic tradition continued in
the work of two other scholars, Rabbi Joseph of Orléans, also known as Joseph Bekhor-
Shor, and Rabbi Eliezer of Beaugency. Joseph of Orléans’s primary focus was on
discerning the continuous narrative of the biblical text. His commentary also includes
polemics against Christian allegorical interpretations of the Hebrew Bible that indicate
his knowledge of the text of the Latin Vulgate and some of the most common Christian
typological interpretations. Rabbi Eliezer of Beaugency’s commentaries on Isaiah,
Ezekiel, and the Minor Prophets reveal a striking independence from classical rabbinic
interpretations. His emphasis is on the historical background of the Prophets and their
visions and on the historical aspects of the prophetic texts.
In the mid-12th century, the Spanish-born Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra (1089–1164) came
to Rouen. His influence on contemporary French biblical exegesis is difficult to
determine, but his later influence was extensive. He wrote commentaries on almost all
books of the Bible. Ibn Ezra, however, incorporates rabbinic traditions in commentaries
that range from philological notes to long scientific treatises. His commentary on the
Song of Songs is the most original; in it, he proposes three levels of meaning: the lexical,
the narrative, and the historical allegory.
After the development of Peshat exegesis during the 12th century, the dialectical
Talmudic commentary called Tosafot seems to have become dominant. Collections of the
biblical comments of these Talmudic masters have been preserved, printed under the
titles Da’at Zeqenim (“Opinions of the Elders”), Hadar Zeqenim (“The Glory of the
Elders”), and Moshav Zeqenim (“Dwelling Place of the Elders”). In addition, some
collections can be ascribed to a single author, such as Sefer HaGan by Rabbi Aaron ben
Yossi Ha-Cohen or Minhat Yehudah by Judah ben Eliezar (fl. 1300). Their biblical
comments, usually based on Rashi’s explanation, offer a harmonization of his comment
with other passages in rabbinic literature.
The concept of assembling previous exegetical work also appears in the polemical
treatise The Book of Joseph the Zealot by Joseph ben Nathan Official (fl. 1260–70). His
polemical treatise, arranged according to the order of the books of the Hebrew Bible,
refutes Christian allegorical interpretations with philological and rational arguments.
Each chapter is augmented by a narrative that sets the stage for the argument: a
conversation with a bishop; an argument with a mendicant; or a discussion with nobility.
Yet another series of exegetical collections from the 13th century comprise glossaries,
probably influenced by Rashi’s Old French glosses. These dictionaries provide the word
in biblical Hebrew, an Old French translation in Hebrew characters, and the Old French
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