theory of fraud developed, giving rise to various remedies of justice including restitution
and disbarment from the practice of a particular trade.
While Jehan Boinbroke defrauded his employees in northern Douai, in the south of
France, Catalan and local merchants occasionally ran afoul of inspection procedures in
spice imports. Several instances of saffron fraud can be reconstructed from 14th-century
documents. Adulteration of the spice to increase its weight, through wetting or the
admixture of extraneous material, was recorded. Municipal officials often chose to make
an example of offenders. In France, as elsewhere in medieval Europe, the maintenance of
high ethical standards in business was essential to the medieval system of commerce,
which was based on mutual faith and trust.
Kathryn L.Reyerson
Cheyette, Fredric L. “The Sovereign and the Pirates, 1332.” Speculum 45(1970):40–68.
Fransen, Gérard. Le dol dans la conclusion des actes juridiques: évolution des doctrines et système
du code canonique. Gembloux: Duculot, 1946.
Meynial, Edmond. “Note sur l’histoire du dol et de la violence dans les contrats dans notre ancien
droit français.” In Mélanges Paul Fournier. Paris: Sirey, 1929.
Reyerson, Kathryn L. “Commercial Fraud in the Middle Ages: The Case of the Dissembling
Pepperer.” Journal of Medieval History 8(1982):63–73.
FREDEGAR
(fl. ca. 642). At some point in the mid-7th century in Burgundy, a chronicler, or
chroniclers, assembled a group of six historical works, now known together as The
Chronicles of Fredegar. The name Fredegar is not found in the medieval manuscripts of
this work; it appears first in the 16th century. Historians, however, have kept it as a
convenient way to refer to the author, or authors, of this important anonymous source for
the history of early-medieval France in the Merovingian period. Fredegar is the most
coherent and reliable guide to things Frankish from 591, when Gregory of Tours left off,
until 642. A Carolingian continuation of the chronicle is found in some, but not all, of the
early manuscripts, and this, too, is an important source for the period up to the first year
of Charlemagne’s reign (768).
Scholars have focused most intently upon the sixth chronicle (or the fourth book,
depending upon how the work is divided), which is Fredegar’s original account of his
own times. The first five chronicles (or three books) comprise his copying, editing, and
interpolating earlier historical works. Fredegar is accurately called a chronicler and not a
historian, for though he moves in an orderly chronological fashion his account lacks the
comprehensive synthesis of large amounts of material that would elevate him to the
company of Bede or Gregory of Tours. His perspective is clearly Burgundian; when he
treats matters in that kingdom, he is most detailed and vivid. He also knows a great deal
about events in Neustria and Austrasia and, from time to time, adds valuable information
concerning Spain, central Europe, and even Byzantium.
Richard A.Gerberding
[See also: HISTORIOGRAPHY]
The Encyclopedia 705