depicting emotional interaction among figures; and depiction of a more concrete spatial
setting for scenes.
In sculpture, the monumental encyclopedic programs of large cathedrals were replaced
by smaller freestanding figures in chapels or on altars. The most popular subject became
the Virgin and Child. Regardless of media—stone, ivory, or metal—the most familiar
representation was the Virgin standing in an exaggerated S-curve pose balancing the
small infant Christ child on her hip. The delicate, smiling facial features and complex
play of drapery folds created a regal but human figure.
The Virgin and Child or other standing saints were frequent themes in stained glass as
well, particularly in Normandy, where a number of examples survive. Painted
architectural canopies created connections with the structural setting. Grisaille glass and
more pastel colors infused buildings with a brighter light that helped to define the
increasingly linear quality of architectural details.
The interest in artistic narrative increased. Narrative cycles became more extensive,
and the scenes often became more densely crowded with figures. The range of subjects
also expanded. Devotional practices associated with popular piety broadened the interest
in depicting biblical narrative with an emphasis on Christ’s life and passion, as well as
saints’ lives. The popularity of vernacular literature also promoted illustration of these
secular themes, often in lengthy cycles for such works as Arthurian romances. All of
these subjects were popular in ivory carvings on polyptychs as well as luxury items, such
as boxes, combs, and mirrors.
In manuscript illumination, these elements found their fullest expression. Manuscripts
of vernacular literature often contained vivid illustrations of the themes recounted in the
text. Devotional manuscripts, especially books of hours, became popular. Jean Pucelle,
whose œuvre extends from ca. 1320 to 1336, expanded the artistic range of manuscript
illumination. In his small book of hours for Jeanne d’Évreux, queen of France, he used a
grisaille painting technique to endow his figures with a three-dimensional presence
characteristic of sculpture. His scenes, such as the Annunciation, began to situate the
figures within believable spatial interiors. He also heightened the emotional level, as seen
in the grieving spectators at the Crucifixion and Entombment.
By the middle of the 14th century, realism began to replace courtly elegance in the
visual arts. This tendency is most apparent in two areas, portraiture and landscape.
Charles V (r. 1364–80) gave particular encouragement to the development of portraiture.
The king, with his clearly distinguishable features, especially a long, prominent nose, was
depicted in many media. Numerous portraits of Charles V are found in illuminated
manuscripts in depictions of the presentation of the book to the king. Although fewer
panel paintings survive, this medium experienced a revival, and portrait panels, such as
the one of John II the Good (r. 1350–64) in the Louvre, are representative of this artistic
trend. Sculptural representations include a pair of figures of Charles V and his queen,
Jeanne de Bourbon, now in the Louvre. Portraits also became fashionable in tomb
sculpture. One of the most outstanding sepulchral ensembles is the portal sculpture,
Moses Well, and tomb of Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, at the Chartreuse de
Champmol at Dijon, dated ca. 1400. The sculptor, Claus Sluter, created figures whose
lifelike veracity enhanced powerful subtlety of expression.
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