related trees native to different parts of southern Arabia and northern
Somalia. The Arabs who controlled their cultivation and trade were success-
ful for a long time in disseminating misinformation about them. Herodotus
reports that“every frankincense producing tree is guarded by large numbers
of tiny, dappled, winged snakes, and only the smoke of burning storax resin
drives them away from the trees.”Confusion abounded about the lands that
produced frankincense and myrrh. Agatharchides, writing three centuries
after Herodotus, claims that“fragrance pervades the whole [south Arabian]
coast, providing a pleasure to visitors that is greater than what can be seen or
described.”He does, however, warn that in the forests of the incense trees
lived a purple snake that could leap into the air and whose bite was incur-
able. ThePeriplus, however, maintains that the production of frankincense
was handled only by convicts and slaves: “For the districts are terribly
unhealthy, harmful to those sailing by and absolutely fatal to those working
there.”
The Egyptians had utilized myrrh for embalming at least since the third
millenniumBCE, but the long-term popularity of both aromatics was due to
their use in medicine and perfume, chiefly in incense. This could be used to
fumigate one’s clothes or body and, when inhaled, was believed to provide
relief from the symptoms of certain illnesses and to be an effective treatment
for wounds and eye disorders. Health and religion were related, and in many
places incense made from frankincense and myrrh was considered to be a
magically potent substance. It gave off“a wondrous scent,”notes Agatharchides,
“so that many come to forget human blessings and think they have tasted
ambrosia.”This heavenly fragrance led to its use in temples from Rome to
China, and frankincense and myrrh were considered divine substances. In
Exodus Yahweh instructs Moses to blend“sweet spices with pure frankin-
cense and make an incense...and put part of it before the testimony in the
tent of meeting where I shall meet with you; it shall be for you most holy.”
The three magi brought frankincense and myrrh as well as gold to the baby
Jesus, and Jesus is said to have been buried with myrrh. While Arabia sent
much frankincense and myrrh to the Mediterranean, an equally large amount
went eastward to India, Central Asia, and China. Arabia also exported other
products to the Indian market including wine,figs, dates, and trained slaves,
including singing boys and musicians.
Although the demand for frankincense and myrrh was strong, it was not
unlimited. Not so for those products of India that are labeled today as spices.
The greatest of them, pepper, was available in Athens from at least the
fourth centuryBCE. It was first used for medicinal purposes; Hippocrates
recommended mixing pepper with honey and vinegar to treat“feminine
disorders.”At the height of the Roman Empire, pepper became the cheapest
and most plentiful spice. It was shipped in large storage jars, each holding
quantities of peppercorns that took up more space in the holds of ships
coming from southern India than any other product. India exported three
When India was the center of the world 91