archaeological evidence comes with no intrinsic meaning and must be
interpreted, some forms of written evidence come already interpreted and can
be biased or even intentionally falsified, although this is usually more the
case for political than economic history. An archaeologicalfind represents a
concrete fact, words written down by an ancient author not necessarily so.
On the positive side, written sources often provide a context for under-
standing and interpreting artifacts. The actual process of exchange cannot be
detected archaeologically; written sources can tell us how trade was carried
on not just what was traded.
Written sources can be divided into two categories: documents, which can
be administrative, economic, or legal in nature; and narrative, which may
include travel accounts and works of history, geography, natural science,
religion, and literature. Documents found together in stockpiles are usually
referred to as archives. They can come from government administrative units,
temples, commercial entities, families, and private individuals. Archival
sources have distinct limitations since whoever was responsible for producing
a document was under no compunction to provide a complete picture of the
commercial system it represented. Rarely are state and public administrative
records, for example, helpful in understanding such matters as how markets
worked. Nevertheless, documentary evidence can provide an immense
amount of information, the equivalent of an intact shipwreck or unplundered
tomb.
Using documentary evidence is largely the realm of specialists. Access to
materials is usually limited, and possessing the necessary linguistic skills can
be challenging. Many narrative accounts, on the other hand, are readily
available in translation, including somefirsthand travelers’ accounts. The
most important source for Indian Ocean trade in the earlyfirst millennium
CE, for example, is thePeriplus Maris Erythraeiwritten by an anonymous
author, probably a Greek-Egyptian trader. ThePeriplusis intended to be a
practical guide for shippers and merchants sailing from Egypt through the
Red Sea and either down the East African coast or across the ocean to India.
It includes some sailing information but is mostly about trade, including
what was bought and sold in each port, taxes and duties, and the disposition
of local authorities.
ThePeriplus Maris Erythraeiis an exceptional source but not unique. A
genre of accounts known as the periplus tradition (fromperiploi: circumnavi-
gation) developed from reports by merchants and sailors describing foreign
places. However, there are dangers in dealing with travelers’accounts. Along
with their ownfirsthand observations travelers brought back hearsay, and
often it is not clear exactly what the writer actually saw and what he only
heard about. Accounts could include real or imaginary journeys and often
containedflights of fantasy. The most insidious use of bad information came
from sources that intentionally disseminated false material. Such commercial
dirty tricks usually originated with middlemen intent on discouraging
Some introductory musings 9