forced to recognize English overlordship in Maine and
Brittany. Hostilities resumed in 1116, when some Nor-
man barons joined a rebellion in favor of Clito. When
the count of Flanders was killed in 1118, Henry again
used his diplomatic skills, marrying his son William to
the daughter of the Angevin count. At this point Louis
complained to the pope about Henry’s action, but Ca-
lixtus II remained friendly to both sides and Normandy
was at peace by 1120.
Tragedy struck in 1120, with the death of Henry’s
only legitimate son, William, drowned when his ship
struck a rock in the Channel. With this death the suc-
cession was thrown into doubt. Henry’s queen had
died in 1118, and after Wil liam’s death Henry quickly
married Adeliza (or Alice) of Louvain in 1121. But as
time passed, it became clear that they were not going to
produce children, and Henry was forced to make plans
for a successor.
The years 1123–24 were marked by Norman
insurrec tion. When Henry V of Germany died in 1125,
Henry re called his daughter and began to concentrate
on making her a viable candidate for the throne. After
obtaining a promise from his barons to support Matilda,
Henry married her to Geoffrey of Anjou. This marriage
was not popular with the barons, and Matilda herself
did not command their loyalty. After Henry’s death in
1135 the throne was seized by his nephew Stephen of
Blois. After years of civil war Matilda re nounced her
own claim, and Stephen agreed to recognize her eldest
son, Henry, as his heir.
Henry I’s reign occurred during the European inves-
titure controversy, in which the reform papacy struggled
with secu lar powers for control of the bishoprics. In
England this cri sis came to a head when Archbishop
Anselm refused to do homage to Henry for his fi efs and
to consecrate bishops whom Henry had already invested
with the ring and staff, the sym bols of episcopal offi ce.
When the pope refused to condone the English customs
concerning lay investiture of clerics, Anselm returned
to the Continent. A compromise, giving the church the
right to invest the ring and staff but permitting the king
to take oaths of homage from the prelates, was effected
in 1106.
In addition to unprecedented peace and prosperity
Hen ry I’s reign also saw the development of important
institutions of government. One of his accomplishments
was the reform of the curia regis (king’s court). He
organized royal offi ces and instituted regular payments
to his offi cials. This eliminated the need to plunder the
countryside as they moved about with the itinerant king.
Henry also systematized the treasury, and his reign saw
the development of the exchequer’s twice-yearly meet-
ings for collecting the taxes due the king. These sessions
were recorded onto the “pipe rolls.” One pipe roll (from
1130) survives for Henry’s reign, and its completeness
and sophisti cation argue that it is one of a series of such
documents. It is a rich source, showing among other
things that many legal reforms once credited to Henry
II were operative by the reign of his grandfather.
Although some historians have characterized Henry’s
rule over England and Normandy as harsh, others have
shown that contemporaries considered the reign to be
successful; it provided England with 33 years of peace
and prosperity. Even in Normandy, which traditionally
suffered from a fractious bar ony, Henry’s peace was
seriously broken only twice after 1106. His accomplish-
ments in war and diplomacy, law, and admin istration
combine to show him as one of England’s most able
and effective rulers.
See also Anselm of Bec; William IFurther Reading
Green, Judith A. The Government of England under Henry I.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986
Hollister, C. Warren. Monarchy, Magnates, and Institutions in
the Anglo-Norman World. London: Hambledon, 1986 [valu-
able collected papers, mainly on political and administrative
topics]
Hollister, C. Warren. “Courtly Culture and Courtly Style in the
Anglo-Norman World.” Albion 20 (1988): 1–17
Mooers, Stephanie I. “A Reevaluation of Royal Justice under
Henry I of En gland.” American Historical Review 93 (1988):
340–58
Newman, Charlotte A. The Anglo-Norman Nobility in the Reign
of Henry I: The Second Generation. Philadelphia: University
of Pennsylvania Press, 1988.
Lois L. HoneycuttHENRY I OF SAXONY
(ca. 876–July 2, 936)
King of East Francia/Germany (König von Ostfranken),
Henry I (Heinrich I.) was born in ca. 876, the third son
of Otto, duke of Saxony (ca. 830/40–912), a Liudolf-
ing, and Hadwig (d. ca. 903), daughter of Henry of
Ostfranken, a Babenberger. Henry was named after his
maternal grandfather. (The name Henry was rare in the
ninth century; its oldest form is Haimeric [lord of the
house].)
About 900 Henry married Hatheburg (ca. 876–ca.
909) in order to gain her inheritance of Merseburg and
other lands in East Saxony. Hatheburg was a widow;
the local clergy objected to the marriage as she was said
to have planned to become a nun. Their opposition did
not deter Henry, however. They had one son, Thankmar
(906–937). The marriage was dissolved in 909. Not
long after, Henry married Mathilde (born ca. 894/897)
of the family of Widukind of Saxony, Charlemagne’s
adversary. Though hardly love at fi rst sight, contempo-
rary sources noted a powerful attraction between the
couple. Mathilde would become an infl uential wife andHENRY I OF SAXONY