and then to Kolbeínn ungi (“the young”) of the Ásbirn-
ingar; Ingibj g’s to Gizurr Þorvaldsson of the Haukdœlir;
and Þórdís’s to Þorvaldr Vatnsfi rðingr. But Þorvaldr was
burned to death at the instigation of Sturla Sighvatsson
in 1228, and the other three marriages turned sour, and
with them the alliances, which proved to be the death
of Snorri, because Gizurr and Kolbeinn were leaders of
the expedition that killed him.
Snorri’s dealings with his fellow Icelanders, as law-
speaker, chieftain, and neighbor, and the personality that
emerges from them, are far too intricate even to outline
here. In essence, Snorri shunned violence and cherished
an ideal of peace, which, however, could not prevail
against the violence of the times or his own greed for
power and ostentatious wealth. He fi gures variously as
a reconciler, an equivocator, or a coward. His practical
sense and legal expertise were often put to the service of
his friends, but often used in deviously self-promoting
ways; and where legal means failed, he did not fl inch
from inciting others to violence.
Snorri began early to court the favor of Scandinavian
rulers by sending youthful praise poems to the Norwe-
gian kings Sverrir Sigurðarson and Ingi Bárðarson, and
the earl Hákon galinn (“the mad”). Hákon sent lavish
gifts in return and an invitation to Norway, but died
before Snorri was able to take up this offer. Snorri did,
however, make the journey to see Hákon’s widow, Kris-
tin, now remarried in Gautland, during his Scandinavian
visit of 1218–1220. The main focus of the visit was the
Norwegian court, and Snorri spent the two winters with
Earl Skúli, regent to the young King Hákon Hákonarson,
becoming a royal retainer and receiving titles from them
culminating in lendr maðr (“baron,” literally “landed-
man”) as well as magnificent gifts. The glory and
generosity of these rulers were celebrated in Snorri’s
grand metrical sampler Háttatal, and Snorri is credited
with two panegyrics for Skúli alone, from which only
a refrain survives. Snorri also cut a political deal in
Norway, making a promise (which he kept little or not
at all) to persuade the Icelanders to accept Norwegian
rule, while Skúli in return gave up his intention to punish
a fracas between the Oddaverjar and Norwegian traders
by invading Iceland.
Snorri again sailed to Norway in 1237, thus escaping
from the tightening web of hostility between Icelandic
clans and within his own, and there he learned of the
deaths of Sighvatr Sturluson and Sturla Sighvatsson in
the battle of O ̨ rlygsstaðir (1238). Snorri stayed with
Earl Skúli and his son Pétr, thus taking the wrong side in
what became a fatal rift between Skúli and King Hákon.
It was later rumored in Iceland that Skúli had secretly
granted Snorri the title of “jarl,” but certainly Snorri
gave Hákon grounds enough for anger and a charge of
treason by leaving Norway in defi ance of his ban. The
king’s anger joined that of Gizurr Þorvaldsson, Snorri’s
alienated and ambitious son-in-law. Acting in delayed
response to a letter from the king that had been brought
to him by Árni óreiða, another former son-in-law, Gizurr,
led the force of seventy men that attacked Reykjaholt on
September 22, 1241. Kolbeinn ungi and one of Hallveig
Ormsdóttir’s sons were also in the company. A party of
fi ve warriors discovered Snorri hiding in the cellar and,
despite his injunction “do not strike” (eigi skal h ggva),
killed him there.
To posterity, Snorri’s role as a man of letters, a pre-
server of poetic, mythological, and historical traditions,
a composer of technically ingenious verse, and a writer
of at times superb prose far exceeds his importance
as magnate and statesman. Yet Sturla Þórðarson only
rarely refers to this side of his life, calling him a good
skáld, and reporting spiteful comments about Snorri’s
poetic attempts to ingratiate himself with the Norwegian
monarchy and about his tendency to compose verses
rather than act. He also tells how Snorri’s nephew Sturla
Sighvatsson spent a winter at Reykjaholt in 1230–31,
and had copies of Snorri’s so ̨ gubæskr made. What saga
books these were is not clear, but Snorri probably wrote
his Prose Edda, his separate Óláfs saga helga, and
most of Heimskringla in the relatively peaceful decade
1220–1230. That he also composed Egils saga has been
argued often and persuasively, if not conclusively.
See also Sturla ÞórðarsonFurther ReadingLiterature
Sigurður Nordal. Snorri Sturluson. Reykjavik: Porláksson, 1920;
rpt. Reykjavik: Helgafell, 1973
Paasche, Fredrik. Snorre Sturlason og Sturlungeme. Oslo: As-
chehoug, 1922; 2nd ed. 1948
Einar Ó1. Sveinsson. The Age of the Sturlungs: Icelandic Civiliza-
tion in the Thirteenth Century. Trans, Jóhann S. Hannesson.
Islandica, 36. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1953; rpt. New
York: Kraus, 1966
Simon, John. “Snorri Sturluson: His Life and Times.” Parergon
15 (1976), 3–15
Ciklamini, Marlene. Snorri Sturluson. Twayne’s World Authors
Series, 493. Boston: Twayne, 1978.
Diana Edwards WhaleySPINELLO ARETINO (c. 1350–1410)
The painter Spinello Aretino (Spinello di Luca Spinelli)
was born into a family of goldsmiths. Spinello was ac-
tive in the principal towns of Tuscany, and his art, like
that of his contemporaries Agnolo Gaddi and Antonio
Veneziano, is characterized by profound insight into
Giottesque concerns with light, space, and form. To this
should be added his highly expressive treatment of line
and, in certain works, an interest in richly wrought sur-
face textures and luminous color. His skills in narrativeSPINELLO ARETINO