38 Chapter 3towards the Social Demo crats or the Bolsheviks because both groups prom-
ised progressive ideas such as autonomy and repre sen ta tion for Rus sian mi-
norities and, in the case of the Bolsheviks, a strong anti- imperialist stance.
During the First World War, four thousand Russian- Koreans served in the
Rus sian Army. These men became “socialist seedlings” for their community
in the RFE.^28 Bolshevik ideology was also inherently attractive to Soviet-
Koreans. Japan occupied Korea, and Lenin’s precepts were anti- imperialist
and anticolonialist. In addition, the Bolsheviks emphasized the “class strug-
gle,” which also appealed to the Koreans. Fi nally, Soviet nationalities were
promised territorial autonomy. The Second All- Korean Congress held in
Nikolsk- Ussuriisk in June 1918 was attended by 128 delegates, the majority of
whom were from the RFE. At this congress, Russian- Koreans showed a keen
understanding of Bolshevik precepts. By immediately requesting autonomy
under Soviet tutelage they were only taking the Bolsheviks up on their prom-
ises. Besides, the Bashkirs had preceded them by one year in their request for
autonomy and the establishment of “Small Bashkiria” in 1917.^29 The follow-
ing statement was recorded: “The Second All- Russian Assembly of Korean
Representatives proclaims that the attainment of the Rus sian Revolution
should be advocated as the slogan of solidarity to achieve our national in de-
pen dent life on the basis of liberty, equality, and fraternity. Long live our
freedom! Long live the Rus sian Revolution! Long live socialism!”^30
Koreans fought on many sides of the Intervention, representing both
the Reds and the Whites as well as serving as translators and drivers for the
Japa nese Army. RFE Koreans were slandered as having supported the Japa-
nese, for it was overwhelmingly Koreans from Manchuria, Korea, and Japan
who had served in the Japa nese Army.^31 Japa n ese Intervention in the Rus sian
Far East, printed by the FER government in 1920, noted that Korean drivers
and one Korean translator were working for the Japa nese Army.^32 Koreans
were not necessarily seen as Japa nese espionage agents, but rather as part and
parcel of Japa nese expansion. The aforementioned publication is one example.
Yet, the FER monograph completely glossed over a Japa nese document
that it reprinted in full. This document stated: “In Vladivostok, however, as
well as in its surroundings, there exists not only a menace to Korea, [refer-
ring to Korean in de pen dence movements/partisans as a threat to Japa nese
rule in Korea] and an inclination to take an unfriendly attitude, but there
are also living in these districts numerous Japa nese subjects.”^33 Basica l ly,
this Japa nese document dated July 3, 1920, saw RFE Koreans as enemies of
Japan and Japa nese rule. The Japa nese report on Sinhanchon and Andrei
Khan in the following pages mirror this report. This FER government re-
port printed the Japa nese government document without commentary and
continued its rhe toric of being besieged on all sides even by FER minority