Doob, Anthony. “Transforming the Punishment En-
vironment: Understanding the Public Views of
What Should Be Accomplished at Punishment.”
The Canadian Journal of Criminology 42 (July,
2000): 323-340. Analysis of public perceptions of
preventative and restorative policy initiatives.
Levitt, Steven D. “The Effect of Prison Population
Size on Crime Rates: Evidence from Prison Over-
crowding Litigation.”Quarterly Journal of Econom-
ics, May, 1996, 319-351. Evaluates statistics on
prison overcrowding in the United States to de-
termine its effects.
Phillips, Llad. “The Criminal Justice System: Its
Technology and Inefficiencies.”Journal of Legal
Studies10 (June, 1981): 363-380. A scathing look
at the flaws of the justice system in the United
States.
Ramcharan de Lint, Subhas, and Thomas Fleming.
The Canadian Criminal Justice System. Toronto:
Prentice Hall, 2001. Explores all elements of Can-
ada’s justice processes, from the courts to the po-
lice. Highlights flaws by suggesting that many pro-
cesses, such as a reliance on precedence and
procedural justice, are outmoded.
Roach, Kent. “Changing Punishment at the Turn of
the Century.”The Canadian Journal of Criminology
42 (July, 2000): 249-280. Appraisal of Canadian
progress toward instituting an effectively restor-
ative and rehabilitative system of justice.
Roberts, Julian V. “Racism and the Collection of Sta-
tistics Relating to Race and Ethnicity.” InCrimes of
Colour: Racialization and the Criminal Justice System
in Canada, edited by Wendy Chan and Kiran
Mirchandani. Peterborough, Ont.: Broadview
Press, 2002. This chapter evaluates the roles that
race plays in the justice system.
Roberts, Julian V., and Andrew Von Hirsch, “Sen-
tencing Trends and Sentencing Disparity.” In
Making Sense of Sentencing, edited by Julian V. Rob-
erts and David P. Cole. Toronto: University of To-
ronto Press, 1999. Analyzes trends in sentencing
in the wake of reforms to determine whether
those reforms have been effective.
Verdun-Jones, Simon N., and Curt T. Griffiths.Cana-
dian Criminal Justice. 2d ed. Toronto: Harcourt
Brace, 1994. Broad overview of the system of jus-
tice in Canada, analyzing the positives and nega-
tives of its implementation, as well as the abstract
philosophical considerations that underlie it.
Esmorie J. Miller
See also Aboriginal rights in Canada; Abscam; Af-
rican Americans; Atlanta child murders; Central
Park jogger case; Domestic violence; Rape; Reagan,
Ronald.Cruise, Tom
Identification American actor
Born July 3, 1962; Syracuse, New York
A talented and extremely charismatic movie actor, Cruise
became a superstar in the 1980’s.
Born Thomas Cruise Mapother IV, Tom Cruise dis-
covered his love of acting during his senior year in
high school, when he was cast in the school produc-
tion of the musicalGuys and Dolls(pr. 1950). Follow-
ing graduation and with no interest in attending col-
lege, Cruise moved to New York City to pursue a
professional acting career. In 1981, the young actor
was hired to play a small role in the movieEndless
Love, starring Brooke Shields and Martin Hewitt.
That same year, he also earned a role inTaps, star-
ring Timothy Hutton. Two years later, Cruise starred
in the comedyLosin’ It(1983) and also played a sup-
porting role in Francis Ford Coppola’sThe Outsiders
(1983).
Cruise’s big break came later that same year,
when he took on the leading role in another teen
film,Risky Business(1983). Enormously popular at
the box office, the movie earned more than $56 mil-
lion in its first eleven weeks in theaters and launched
Cruise on the road to superstardom. In 1983, he also
starred inAll the Right Moves, which, although not
as financially successful as his other movies, none-
theless earned the young actor critical acclaim for
his portrayal of the movie’s main character, Stef
Djordevic.
In 1986, Cruise starred in the tremendously suc-
cessful filmTop Gun, further elevating the young
actor to superstar status. The movie, about an Ameri-
can fighter pilot, became that year’s highest-grossing
film at the box office. Also in 1986, Cruise starred in
The Color of Moneywith Paul Newman, a sequel to
Newman’s earlierThe Hustler(1961). In 1988, Cruise
starred in the vastly successful movieRain Manwith
Dustin Hoffman. That film received eight Academy
Award nominations and won four awards, including
Best Picture and Best Actor for Hoffman. Cruise
ended the decade starring in Oliver Stone’sBorn onThe Eighties in America Cruise, Tom 265