Representative for Planet 8(1986) and an adaptation of
Edgar Allen Poe’sThe Fall of the House of Usher(1988).
The 1980’s were prolific for Glass, whose approxi-
mately forty compositions of the decade included bal-
lets, chamber music, operas, orchestra music, choral
music, film scores, songs, world music, and theatrical
scores. Many of these works were collaborations with
artists in various disciplines. Songwriter Paul Simon
and others contributed lyrics toSongs from Liquid Days
(1985), and David Byrne collaborated onthe CIVIL
warS.In the Upper Room(1986), a ballet choreographed
by Twyla Tharp, integrated dance and music. Glass’s
seven film scores included those for Godfrey Reggio’s
Koyaanisqatsi(1982) andPowaqqatsi(1987), each of
which won multiple awards. These first two produc-
tions of Reggio’s stunning “Quatsi trilogy” (com-
pleted in 2002) incorporated music, images, and
ideas from American landscapes. Glass also contrib-
uted film scores to less experimental films, such as
Hamburger Hill(1987) andThe Thin Blue Line(1988).
Impact A prodigious composer in many genres,
Philip Glass blurred the lines of musical categoriza-
tion through unconventional compositions using
non-Western techniques and partnerships with col-
laborating artists.
Further Reading
Glass, Philip, and Robert T. Jones.Music by Philip
Glass. Updated ed. Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo
Press, 1995.
Kastelanetz, Richard, and Robert Flemming.Writ-
ings on Glass: Essays, Interviews, Criticism.Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1999.
Maycock, Robert.Glass: A Portrait. London: Sanctu-
ary, 2002.
Douglas D. Skinner
See also Classical music; Minimalist literature; Mu-
sic; Olympic Games of 1984;Tron; World music.
Glass ceiling
Definition An unofficial or unacknowledged
barrier within an organization’s hierarchy that
prevents personal advancement, especially of
women or minorities in employment
The term “glass ceiling” was popularized in the 1980’s and
became an important concept in the American workplace.
Two articles written during the 1980’s are credited
with coining the phrase “glass ceiling.” The first in-
stance of the term appeared in a 1984Adweekarticle
about magazine editor Gay Bryant. The second arti-
cle, from the March 24, 1986, issue ofThe Wall Street
Journal, was written by Carol Hymowitz and Timothy
Schellhardt. The term “ceiling” describes a barrier
that women or minorities experience as they try to
advance within a company or organization. The
“glass” metaphor describes the transparent quality
of the ceiling, because it is not immediately recog-
nized or acknowledged.Workplace Issues for Women Issues contributing
to women’s experience of a workplace glass ceiling
during the 1980’s included work-life balance, a lack
of access to informal networks, a lack of effective
mentors and role models, and gender-based stereo-
types. A 1984 U.S. Census Bureau study showed that,
on average, women had spent less time working at
their current job than had men. The Department of
Labor concluded that women were unable to attain
seniority equal to that of men because of the time
they spent away from work. Women were the pri-
mary caregivers for children or the elderly, and
working women had to balance family life with their
career.
Women also lacked access to the informal net-
works that men used to develop relationships within
organizations. These networks were perceived to in-
clude “male activities,” usually sporting events such
as golf. The golf course was a place where male bond-
ing and informal mentoring occurred, and women
were usually not included. Despite the fact that
mentoring is considered an important factor in lead-
ership development, women had fewer opportuni-
ties to cultivate mentor relationships. Mentors usu-
ally chose protégés that they viewed to be most
similar to themselves, and typically men were more
comfortable mentoring other men. There were fewer
women mentors because of the limited number of
female managers and executives, creating a vicious
circle.
Biases and stereotypes also contributed to the
glass ceiling. Women were viewed as operating more
on emotion than on intellect. Other sexist attitudes
included the beliefs that women could not be effec-
tive leaders, that they did not know how to get along
in the business world, and that they had ineffective
management styles. If a female executive behaved in418 Glass ceiling The Eighties in America