that opponents of free trade would assert that it was
causing the United States to lose jobs overseas, for
example. By the end of the 1980’s, however, advo-
cates of social justice had begun to voice their oppo-
sition to the establishment of an international divi-
sion of labor. In addition, the U.S. multicultural
movement expressed concern over what it called
“cultural imperialism,” that is, the economic imposi-
tion of American culture and values on other na-
tions through the export of American cultural com-
modities, especially music, television, and cinema.
Further Reading
Friedman, Thomas L.The World Is Flat: A Brief Histor y
of the Twenty-First Centur y. New York: Farrar, Straus
& Giroux, 2006. Optimistic account of globaliza-
tion as leveling competition between industrial
and emerging market countries; focuses particu-
larly on how corporations in India and China
have become part of global supply chains as a re-
sult of technological innovations, especially the
Internet.
MacGillivray, Alex.A Brief Histor y of Globalization: The
Untold Stor y of Our Incredible Shrinking Planet. Lon-
don: Constable & Robinson, 2006. Traces the pre-
conditions of today’s globalized world to such in-
ventions as the magnetic compass, geometry and
mathematics, Aristotelian logic, and world maps.
Muller, Ronald E. “Globalization and the Failure of
Economic Policy.”Challenge18, no. 2: 57. A pro-
phetic warning that the rise of multinational cor-
porations invalidated orthodox economic the-
ory, since they can use their economic power to
move production to countries with minimal eco-
nomic restrictions, thereby displacing workers in
the industrial democracies. One of the first uses
of the term “globalization.”
Stiglitz, Joseph E.Globalization and Its Discontents.
New York: W. W. Norton, 2003. A former chief
economist at the World Bank indicts the global
economic policies of the International Monetary
Fund for outmoded economic theories, lack of
transparency to the public, and favoring corpo-
rate interests over those of the people.
___.Making Globalization Work. New York: W. W.
Norton, 2006. Solutions to such problems as the
instability of the global financial system caused by
America’s debt and the destruction of the envi-
ronment by developing countries.
Michael Haas
See also Canada-United States Free Trade Agree-
ment; Cold War; Computers; Environmental move-
ment; Foreign policy of the United States; Reagan,
Ronald; Reaganomics; United Nations.Go-Go’s, The
Identification All-woman rock band
Date Active from 1978 to 1985
The Go-Go’s were the first all-woman rock band of musical
significance to be widely successful. They helped define the
look and sound of the 1980’s.
The Go-Go’s formed in Los Angeles in 1978. Belinda
Carlisle, their lead singer, had sung briefly with a
hardcore punk band called the Germs. Jane Wied-
lin, their most talented songwriter, was also in the
Los Angeles punk underground scene. They were
joined by Charlotte Caffey, the group’s lead guitarist
and keyboard player, who was some years older than
its other members. After being briefly preceded by
Elissa Bello, the charismatic Gina Schock (alluded
to in the 1987 John Hughes-written filmSome Kind of
Wonderful) became the group’s drummer in 1979.
Bass guitarist Margot Olavarria left the band early,
though she received some financial consideration
from their later success. She was replaced by Kathy
Valentine, perhaps the most underrated member of
the group, who quickly became a skilled bass player.
Unlike previous all-female bands that were often
largely marketing vehicles, the Go-Go’s wrote their
own songs and were accomplished musicians. Their
debut album,Beauty and the Beat(1981), combined
New Wave and surf-music influences to produce an
inimitable and infectious sound. Their first hit, “Our
Lips Are Sealed,” was a catchy song about a couple
plagued by rumors concerning a possible affair be-
tween them. Their second album,Vacation, featured
a song of the same name that epitomized a spirit of
wistful yet carefree yearning. The five attractive yet
quirky young women quickly became pop icons.
Carlisle, in particular, became a celebrity and began
to date Los Angeles Dodgers baseball prospect Mike
Marshall. Though not reaching the sales heights
of the previous two albums, the group’sTalk Show
(1984) represented an artistic advance, illustrated
not only by the upbeat single “Head Over Heels”
(featured prominently as a video on MTV) but also
by songs with unusually thoughtful lyrics, such asThe Eighties in America Go-Go’s, The 421