other areas, however, U.S. forces could exploit the
weak resistance to overrun opposition and accom-
plish key objectives, including the rapid evacuation
of U.S. citizens from the island. Not all things went
smoothly, as the different service branches found it
difficult to coordinate action through their separate
communications systems, and directing air power
proved difficult. Locating isolated pockets of Gre-
nadian militias took time, but the process was aided
by local civilians, who generally welcomed the Amer-
ican intervention. Major resistance to the invasion
ended after three days, but it took until November 2
for U.S. forces to eliminate all opposition and cap-
ture all objectives. By mid-December, the Grena-
dians had established an interim government led
by Governor-General Paul Scoon, the local repre-
sentative of the British Commonwealth, as well as by
the OECS. Eventually, a permanent government
was established, led by Prime Minister Nicholas
Brathwaite. The last American forces left the island
on December 15, 1983.
Impact The invasion sent a clear signal to the So-
viet Union and its allies that the United States in-
tended to wage a much more aggressive Cold War
against its communist enemies. Some commenta-
tors believed the Grenada invasion, along with other
small military operations during Reagan’s presi-
dency, had ended the “Vietnam syndrome” that had
hindered America’s willingness to use military power
as a foreign policy option since the end of the Viet-
nam War. The lack of organization and communica-
tion among the branches of the U.S. Armed Forces
alarmed Congress, however, and it resulted in the
passage in 1986 of the Goldwater-Nichols Act, which
established a unified U.S. military command struc-
ture.
Further Reading
Burrowes, Reynold A.Revolution and Rescue in Gre-
nada: An Account of the U.S.-Caribbean Invasion.
New York: Greenwood Press, 1988. The first ma-
jor account of Operation Urgent Fury to include
interviews with the commanders and planners of
the operation.
Cole, Ronald H.Operation Urgent Fur y: The Planning
and Execution of Joint Operations in Grenada, 12
October-2 November 1983.Washington, D.C.: Joint
History Office, Office of the Chairman of the
Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1997. The only major work
on the invasion that includes detailed accounts of
the pre-invasion planning using official declassi-
fied documents.
O’Shaughnessy, Hugh.Grenada: An Eyewitness Ac-
count of the U.S. Invasion and the Caribbean Histor y
That Provoked It.New York: Dodd, Mead, 1985.
One of the first major works on the invasion, the
book features the experiences of many partici-
pants.
Steven J. RamoldSee also Cold War; Foreign policy of the United
States; Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986; Reagan, Ron-
ald; Reagan Doctrine.Gretzky, Wayne
Identification Canadian hockey player
Born January 26, 1961; Brantford, Ontario
Gretzky, known as the “Great One,” dominated his sport for
more than twenty years; his greatest success came in the
1980’s.
By 1988, Wayne Gretzky was easily the most famous
hockey player in the world, and he was reputed by
some to be the greatest ever to play the game. Thus,
when Gretzky was traded in that year from the Ed-
monton Oilers to the Los Angeles Kings, the way
was paved for an unprecedented spike in the popu-
larity of professional hockey in Southern California.
Within a short period of time, the National Hockey
League (NHL) expanded into multiple warm-
weather American cities, including Anaheim, Cali-
fornia. Without Gretzky’s successful stay in Los An-
geles, that likely would not have happened.
Gretzky’s reputation as the Great One was ce-
mented well before that 1988 trade. He began his ca-
reer with the Edmonton Oilers and led that team to
Stanley Cup titles in 1984, 1985, 1987, and 1988. Be-
ginning in 1980, he won the league’s Most Valuable
Player (MVP) award eight straight times. One year
later, he began a streak of seven straight years in
which he led the league in goals scored. During the
1981-1982 season, he scored an amazing 92 goals
and 212 points, becoming the first player to break
the 200-point barrier. He finished the 1985-1986 sea-
son with 215 total points, including 163 assists.
It was just two months before the beginning of the
1988-1989 season when Gretzky’s trade to Los An-
geles was announced. Edmonton fans were upset, as432 Gretzky, Wayne The Eighties in America