radon from entering the house, the gas and particles
can enter through cracks, drainage systems, and
joints. If the ventilation is poor, the element cannot
easily dissipate. Radon gas itself is not the main
health culprit; rather, it is the radon daughters,
made up of alpha particles attached to dust, that
present the health risk. The lungs absorb the most
intense radiation; as little as a millimeter can cause
lung cancer, particularly in smokers. The National
Cancer Institute estimates that between fifteen thou-
sand and twenty-two thousand radon-related lung
cancer deaths occur each year in the United States.
Whether or not a home is contaminated is deter-
mined by taking air samples and then electronically
measuring alpha emissions. Because radon is odor-
less and colorless, residents will not be aware of it un-
less such sampling is done. Decontamination meth-
ods involve sealing entry points (using caulk, epoxy
paint, and polyethylene sheeting) and increasing
ventilation.
Impact Many buildings are safer today from radon
because of the public awareness campaign in the
1980’s. All homes should be fixed if the radon level is
4 picocuries per liter or higher. Radon levels of less
than 4 picocuries per liter still pose a risk and may be
reduced.
Further Reading
Cole, Leonard A.Element of Risk: The Politics of Radon.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Debates
the EPA’s policy and reveals the interplay among
science, society, and the federal government.
Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Ra-
diation, U.S. National Research Council.Health
Effects of Exposure to Radon.Washington, D.C.: Na-
tional Academies Press, 1999. Covers the research
on radon and lung cancer.
Edlestein, M., and W. Makofske.Radon’s Deadly
Daughters: Science, Environmental Policy, and Politics
of Risk.Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998.
Examines how social and scientific factors led to
misunderstandings about radon.
Icon Health Publications.Radon: A Medical Dictio-
nar y, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to
Internet References.San Diego, Calif.: Author, 2004.
A guide to relevant research and terms.
National Research Council.Risk Assessment of Radon
in Drinking Water. Washington, D.C.: National
Academies Press, 1999. Details the inhalation and
ingestion risks.
Ritchie, Ingrid, and Stephen John Martin.Healthy
Home Kit.Chicago: Real Estate Education, 1995.
How to clean up home hazards such as radon,
lead, and asbestos.
Jan HallSee also Air pollution; Cancer research; Smoking
and tobacco; Water pollution.Raging Bull
Identification American film
Director Martin Scorsese (1942- )
Date Released November 14, 1980
A poll of film critics in the United States and abroad con-
ducted byPremiereandAmerican Filmmagazines in
1989 named this biopic of boxer Jake La Motta as the best
motion picture of the 1980’s.
Released midway through a crowd-pleasing series
about a fictional boxing hero—Rocky (1976),Rocky II
(1979),Rocky III(1982), andRocky IV(1985)—Raging
Bulloffered a more complicated, less resolved, and
far darker look at men who live in the ring. In con-
trast to the likable Rocky, the protagonist ofRaging
Bullis a self-destructive, obsessive batterer. Based
on the ghostwritten autobiography of middleweight
Jake La Motta, director Martin Scorsese’s biopic
completed a trilogy, withMean Streets(1973) and
Taxi Driver(1976), of Scorsese-directed films set in
New York in which actor Robert De Niro delivered
raw, visceral performances portraying men who live
by and through violence.
De Niro brought the La Motta project to Scor-
sese’s attention; the actor’s commitment to the part
became legendary, as he spent a year training with
the former boxer and did all the carefully choreo-
graphed fight scenes himself. He gained more than
fifty-five pounds to replicate La Motta’s middle-aged,
bloated body for the scenes of Jake as a nightclub
performer that frame the central narrative. Also de-
livering outstanding performances were Joe Pesci
as Jake’s brother Joey and Cathy Moriarty as Jake’s
second wife. In a film of great visual beauty, cinema-
tographer Michael Chapman moved between gritty
realism and stylized expressionism. Filmed in a wide-
screen format, almost entirely in black and white,
sometimes at varying camera speeds, utilizing an
unorthodox sound track, and focused on questionsThe Eighties in America Raging Bull 793