program shown from 1946 to 1998, with cast lists,
airdates, and occasional critical insights into why
a show succeeded or failed.
Reddicliffe, Steven, ed. “TV Guide”: Fifty Years of Tele-
vision.New York: Crown, 2002. Lavishly illustrated
history of significant television programs. Includes
photographs of leading actors and performers
from the 1950’s to the start of the twenty-first cen-
tury and celebrity commentaries on certain tele-
vised events.
Staiger, Janet.Blockbuster TV: Must-See Sitcoms in the
Network Era.New York: New York University Press,
- Analyzes and discusses why some sitcoms
achieve much greater success than others, with
particular focus onLaverne and ShirleyandThe
Cosby Show.
Jane L. Ball
See also African Americans; Cable television;
Cheers;Cosby Show, The;Designing Women;Facts of Life,
The;Family Ties; FOX network;Golden Girls, The;
Married... with Children;MAS*Hseries finale;
Television.
Skinheads and neo-Nazis
Definition Members of white supremacist
movements
The skinheads developed into one of the largest and most vi-
olent white separatist movements in the United States in the
1980’s, a decade characterized by an increase in hate
groups nationwide.
The skinhead phenomenon had its origins in En-
gland in the early 1970’s. The movement generally
attracted white, urban, working-class youth between
the ages of thirteen and twenty-five. These individu-
als were concerned about the economic and social
obstacles they were encountering in Great Britain
because of their limited education and competition
from immigrants. Skinheads could be identified by
their shaved or closely cropped hair, their tattoos,
and their combat boots. Some skinheads were in-
volved in racial attacks against Pakistani immigrants
and homosexuals. Over time, the skinhead phenom-
enon spread from England to continental Europe,
where it also attracted working-class youth. By the
early 1980’s, skinheads began to appear in the United
States. While the American skinheads’ appearance
was similar to that of their European counterparts,
their socioeconomic background was more diverse,
with the movement comprising alienated middle-
class and working-class youth. Many came from bro-
ken homes, and becoming a skinhead gave these
youths a new identity and sense of belonging.
The American skinhead movement was also more
diverse in ideology. Some skinhead groups followed
a white supremacist ideology, while others were non-
racists. In fact, there were also African American
skinheads. The racially oriented skinheads adopted
an eclectic pattern of racial beliefs. Some followed
orthodox Nazi ideology, while others adhered to
a mixture of racial beliefs including populism,
ethnocentrism, and ultranationalist chauvinism. The
racial skinheads had a special war cry, “RAHOWA,”
which stood for “racial holy war.” These skinheads
targeted minority groups, including African Ameri-
cans, Asians, and Hispanics. They also attacked ho-
mosexuals and homeless people.
“White power” music was one of the major re-
cruiting tools of the skinhead movement. The first
white power band, Skrewdriver, was started by Ian
Stuart Donaldson in England in 1977. Donaldson,
who dropped his surname and became known as Ian
Stuart, aligned himself with the neofascist British
National Front in 1979. In the United States, skin-
head music was linked to “Oi,” a music form distinct
from punk rock, hardcore, or heavy metal. These
bands played a type of rock whose lyrics focused on
bigotry and violence. In time, a number of skinhead
bands emerged in the United States with names
such as Angry White Youth, Extreme Hatred, Aggra-
vated Assault, Aryan, Thunder Bound for Glory,
RAHOWA, and New Minority.
The skinhead movement was a decentralized
movement with no hierarchy or central leadership.
Many different skinhead groups operated in the
United States, with the greatest concentration on
the West Coast. In the 1980’s, several neo-Nazi orga-
nizations began to try recruiting the racial skinheads
into their organizations. The most notable attempt
was by former Ku Klux Klan member Tom Metzger
and his son, John Metzger. Tom Metzger, a televi-
sion repairman from Fallbrook, California, was the
founder and leader of a neo-Nazi organization
called the White Aryan Resistance (WAR). Metzger
began actively to recruit skinheads into WAR by por-
traying his organization as anti-authoritarian and
pro-working class. In 1986, he founded the Aryan878 Skinheads and neo-Nazis The Eighties in America