Schools sometimes joined together with coali-
tions, groups, foundations, and universities and fol-
lowed blueprints for ensuring effective school prac-
tice. For example, some elementary schools joined
the Basic School Network, which followed the ideas
set forth in a report by Ernest Boyer from the Carne-
gie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.
In the area of teacher education, there was a move-
ment both to improve the education of teachers in
colleges and universities through more emphasis on
disciplinary majors as well as education courses and
to ensure continuous professional development. At
the same time, there was a trend to open up the pro-
fession to others through alternate routes of entry,
for college graduates not trained in teacher educa-
tion and mid-career professionals.
Impact All this attention to the nature of educa-
tion, with varying views about its health and concep-
tions for reform, highlighted divisions in American
society about notions of quality, equality, and educa-
tional values. While the intensity of the debate about
the curriculum and the American character would
abate somewhat by the late 1990’s, proponents and
opponents on both sides continued with their re-
spective positions. The incorporation of the new
scholarship in elementary and secondary schools
varied from state to state, and on the higher educa-
tion level different institutions made varying choices,
with most incorporating the new approaches of the
new social history and theories in subjects such as
the humanities. Toward the end of the decade, there
were proposals for reform of undergraduate teach-
ing in the large research universities, where research
was a prime focus. Goals and performance standards
had varying degrees of success. While schools con-
centrated on meeting the test content, supporters
praised this approach and critics worried about
teaching for the test. Innovative approaches in
school reorganization and in types of schools illus-
trated the diversity of the educational experience.
Attempts at improving the education of teachers
highlighted the importance of education in Ameri-
can society, though financial resources were often
lacking.
Subsequent Events The emphasis on testing was
carried forward in legislation such as the No Child
Left Behind Act of 2001, which included testing in
grades three through eight, although critics would
soon express concern about inadequate funding. In
higher education, more criticism ensued regarding
the SAT, and there was some modification of it by
the College Board.Further Reading
Angus, David L., and Jeffrey E. Mirel.The Failed Prom-
ise of the American High School, 1890-1995. New
York: Teachers College Press, 1999. Critical of the
differentiated high school curriculum and the
comprehensive high school, the authors provide
a historical overview including efforts in the
1990’s to revamp the differentiated curriculum
and the comprehensive high school.
Berliner, David, and Bruce J. Biddle.The Manufac-
tured Crisis: Myths, Fraud, and the Attack on America’s
Public Schools. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley,- The authors contend that the allegations
about a decline in education were unwarranted
and that the purpose of some critics was to
weaken public schools.
Boyer, Ernest L.The Basic School: A Community for
Learning. Princeton, N.J.: Carnegie Foundation
for the Advancement of Teaching, 1995. Blue-
print for effective schools utilized by a group of el-
ementary schools in the 1990’s.
D’Souza, Dinesh.Illiberal Education: The Politics of
Race and Sex on Campus.New York: Free Press, - Very critical attack on multiculturalism and
institutions of higher learning, particularly the
first-tier, elite institutions, as being enmeshed in
politics and not liberal education as was con-
ceived in the past.
Levine, Lawrence W.The Opening of the American
Mind: Canons, Culture, and Histor y. Boston: Bea-
con Books, 1996. A comprehensive critique of
those who saw doom and gloom in higher educa-
tion in the 1990’s. Highlights new developments
in scholarship that enriched understanding of
the American past and illustrates that the canon
has gone through many revisions.
Lucas, Christopher J.Teacher Education in America:
Reform Agendas for the Twenty-first Centur y. New
York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997. Historical overview
that discusses the debates of the 1990’s about im-
proving teacher preparation and various efforts,
from coalitions to changes in programs in col-
leges and universities to alternative routes.
Nash, Gary B., Charlotte Crabtree, and Ross E.
Dunn, Histor y on Trial: Culture Wars and the
Teaching of the Past. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
The Nineties in America Education in the United States 289