Nobel Prizes
Definition Prizes awarded each year for
achievements in chemistry, economic sciences,
literature, peace, physics, and physiology or
medicine
In the 1990’s, North Americans dominated the scientific
and economic Nobel Prizes. North Americans were awarded
about 60 percent of the Nobel Prizes of the decade, with Ca-
nadians constituting about 10 percent of the North Ameri-
can total.
The Nobel Prize award signifies international praise
for scientific and cultural achievements. Nobel lau-
reates bring prestige to their country and its institu-
tions and attract the attention of students and fund-
ing bodies to their work.
Chemistry Prizes were awarded in chemistry for a
diverse group of achievements. Elias James Corey
was honored for work on the methodology of or-
ganic chemical synthesis, and George Olah for stud-
ies of positively charged carbon ions. Walter Kohn
developed density functional theory and John Pople
developed new computational methods for quan-
tum mechanics. Rudolph A. Marcus elucidated elec-
tron transfer reactions in chemical systems, while
Ahmed Zewail employed femtosecond spectro-
scopic techniques to study transition states in reac-
tions.
Mario J. Molina and F. Sherwood Rowland shared
a prize for studies of ozone depletion in the atmo-
sphere. Richard Smalley and Robert Curl were hon-
ored for work on the structure and properties of
fullerenes: carbon cage molecules.
On the biochemical side, Kary B. Mullis shared a
prize with Michael Smith; Mullis developed the poly-
merase chain reaction (PCR), and Smith was hon-
ored for protein studies using oligonucleotide-
based, site-directed mutagenesis. Paul D. Boyer
shared a prize for work on the mechanism of synthe-
sis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Literature and Peace Writer Toni Morrison was
awarded the prize for her novels, such asBeloved
(1987), which speak to aspects of American reality.
She was the first African American woman to win the
Nobel Prize in Literature. Derek Walcott was hon-
ored for his luminous poetry with its historical vi-
sion.
The Nobel Peace Prizes were awarded to Joseph
Rotblat and the Pugwash Conferences on Science
and World Affairs in 1995 for efforts to ban nuclear
weapons proliferation, and in 1997 to Jody Williams
and the International Campaign to Ban Landmines
for efforts to ban antipersonnel land mines.Physics Scattering of electrons by protons and
bound neutrons formed the basis of studies by
Jerome I. Friedman, Henry W. Kendall, and Richard
E. Taylor, which earned their award. Bertram N.
Brockhouse was honored for developing neutron-
scattering techniques in the study of condensed mat-
ter. He shared the prize with Clifford G. Shull, who
concentrated on neutron diffraction. Condensed
matter also figured in the prize awarded to David M.
Lee, Douglas D. Osheroff, and Robert C. Richard-
son, who discovered superfluidity in helium-3. A
prize was shared by Martin L. Perl for discovery of
the tau lepton and by Frederick Reines for detection
of the neutrino. Steven Chu and William D. Phillips
shared a prize for cooling and trapping atoms with
laser light. Robert B. Laughlin, Horst L. Störmer,
and Daniel C. Tsui were honored for discovery of a
new type of quantum fluid. Russell A. Hulse and Jo-
seph H. Taylor, Jr., were awarded the prize for discov-
ering a new type of pulsar, important in the study of
gravitation.Physiology or Medicine Joseph E. Murray and
E. Donnall Thomas shared the Nobel Prize for dis-
coveries related to organ and cell transplantation.
Edmond H. Fischer and Edwin G. Krebs were hon-
ored for studies on reversible protein phosphoryla-
tion. Phillip A. Sharp shared a prize for the discovery
of split genes. Alfred G. Gilman and Martin Rodbell
shared a prize for the discovery of G proteins and
their role in cellular signaling. Edward B. Lewis and
Eric F. Wieschaus shared a prize for discoveries con-
cerning genetic control of embryonic development.
Stanley B. Prusiner won a prize for the discovery
of prions, a new principle of infection. Robert F.
Furchgott, Louis J. Ignarro, and Ferid Murad were
honored for discoveries related to nitric oxide as a
signaling agent in the cardiovascular system. Günter
Blobel won his prize for discovering the signals pro-
teins have that govern their transport and localiza-
tion in the cell.Economic Sciences Harry M. Markowitz, Merton
H. Miller, and William F. Sharpe were awarded
the 1990 prize for work on the theory of financial614 Nobel Prizes The Nineties in America