was limited to purely mathematical functions. After
the development of the microprocessor, which put
the circuitry of a computer’s central processing unit
on a single chip, computers were able to become
smaller, lighter, and less expensive. Pocket calcula-
tors began to go beyond basic arithmetic into ad-
vanced mathematical functions such as trigonome-
try. Some even included larger screens that could
graph functions or the capacity to program equa-
tions into them, which could be recalled and used
later.
At the same time, the earliest electronic organiz-
ers were beginning to appear for business users.
These devices generally had a date book and an ad-
dress book but little in the way of installable soft-
ware. Some had the capacity to synchronize with a
desktop computer, but many were stand-alone de-
vices; the only input was through their tiny key-
boards. As a result, the earliest generation of elec-
tronic organizers were regarded as little more than
expensive toys by many consumers.
In 1993, Apple Computer’s chief executive offi-
cer (CEO), John Sculley, announced that Apple
would be producing a new kind of handheld com-
puter, which he called a personal digital assistant, or
PDA. This device, which Apple would sell under the
name of MessagePad, would not use a keyboard. In-
stead, the user would write directly on its touch-
sensitive screen with a plastic stylus (a device like a
pen but without ink) and the computer’s “electronic
ink” would write the letters. It would be particularly
suitable for people who needed to use a computer
while walking around and thus found a laptop too
bulky and awkward.
The initial response to the MessagePad was en-
thusiastic, but once the device actually shipped, the
excitement quickly waned. The handwriting recog-
nition, which had been promoted so heavily, was
problematic, often turning one’s messages into in-
comprehensible messes. The processor was slow,
and synchronization with a desktop machine, even
Apple’s own Macintosh, was inconsistent. Worst of
all, the battery life was notoriously short, and users
often lost all their data when the batteries suddenly
died. As a result, the MessagePad, often called New-
ton after its operating system (OS), proved to have
disappointing sales figures. Although the Newton
went through multiple revisions over the next sev-
eral years, none of them was able to create an accept-
able combination of price and performance. In
1997, Steve Jobs put an end to the Newton as part of
his program to simplify Apple’s product line.
However, even as Apple was struggling with the
MessagePad and the Newton OS, Jeff Hawkins was
creating his own pen-based handheld computer. Ini-
tially called a Zoomer, it was later renamed the Palm
Pilot, or simply the Palm. In order to strike a balance
between battery life and processor power, Hawkins
decided to abandon true handwriting recognition
in favor of a simplified alphabet called Graffiti. As a
result, the Palm made a respectable, if not spectacu-
lar, showing that allowed its company to grow and ex-
pand. While Apple had sought to produce a perfect
product, Palm was satisfied to make one that would
make a practical difference in people’s lives while
staying within the constraints of workable tech-
nology.
In 1998, another contender entered the PDA
field when the Canadian company Research In Mo-
tion (RIM) introduced the BlackBerry. Originally a
two-way pager with some organizer functions, it was
distinct from pen-based PDAs, such as the Newton
and the Palm, because it had a tiny keyboard on
which one typed, using the thumbs. This feature re-
minded one of the designers of the seeds in a straw-
berry; however, a linguist suggested that “straw”
sounded slow, and as a result, the official name be-
came BlackBerry. Because the BlackBerry’s orga-
nizer functions were closely integrated with its wire-
less connection, it was notable for the smoothness
with which a user could contact someone. As a result,
later BlackBerry models began to expand their orga-
nizer functions until they effectively became full-
service PDAs with wireless connectivity.
The success of the BlackBerry led Palm to inves-
tigate the possibility of a PDA with wireless Inter-
net connectivity. The first attempt, the Palm VII,
debuted as the 1990’s gave way to the twenty-first
century. However, it used a proprietary network and
“web clippings,” miniature Web pages that had to be
acquired from Palm.Impact In spite of the commercial failure of the Ap-
ple Newton, it proved the viability of the idea of the
handheld computer sufficiently enough that other
companies were willing to produce their own de-
signs. By using less ambitious software, these were
able to keep costs down to the point that they could
sell enough to make the venture economical. With
the addition of wireless connections that enabled660 PDAs The Nineties in America