tor y of Modern Psychology. 9th ed. Florence, Ky.:
Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2007. Focused
primarily on the late nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. Contains an epilogue centered on late
twentieth century psychological developments.
Ami R. BlueSee also AIDS epidemic; Alzheimer’s disease;
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990; Antidepres-
sants; Attention-deficit disorder; Genetics research;
Gulf War syndrome; Health care; Pharmaceutical in-
dustry; Religion and spirituality in the United States;
Science and technology.
Publishing
Definition The business of the commercial
production and distribution of literature
The 1990’s was a time of transition for the publishing in-
dustr y. With the advent of the Internet, the industr y had a
new method for content deliver y but also a competitor for its
audience’s leisure time.
Large chain bookstores such as Barnes & Noble and
Borders were becoming increasingly popular in the
1990’s, and as their sales grew, more independent
bookstores began to close. The impact this had on
the publishing industry was determined by the kind
of materials the big bookstores wanted—namely,
books by big-name authors and celebrities. While
major authors and celebrities were offered large ad-
vances by the publishing houses, these titles did not
always sell well. Millions of dollars were being lost be-
cause of these advances in combination with a high
rate of returns (unsold copies returned to publish-
ers for a refund).
Not all books sold poorly. Textbook sales in-
creased during the 1990’s, as did the sales of
audiobooks. Audiobooks had initially been sold
through direct mail, but as the 1990’s progressed,
they became more popular and widely available, first
through libraries and then bookstores.
The landscape of the book publishing industry
changed significantly during the 1990’s, with over
six hundred mergers and acquisitions among pub-
lishing companies taking place during the decade.
Large media conglomerates acquired or created
publishing companies: For instance, the Walt Dis-
ney Company established its publishing branch,
Hyperion, and CBS/Viacom purchased Simon &
Schuster. The consolidation of the industry into a
few major players concerned bookstore owners
across the country; booksellers claimed that they
had less contact with publishing representatives and
that larger publishing houses were putting all of their
resources into best sellers and major chain book-
stores. The result—they claimed—was a blander,
less robust literary scene.Internet In July of 1995, Amazon.com opened for
business. The site became a very popular venue for
the purchase of books and other media, and as its
sales took off, more online bookstores followed, in-
cluding online outlets of chain stores Barnes & No-
ble and Borders. The Internet not only was a new fo-
rum from which to sell books but also became
another competitor for readers’ (and viewers’) lei-
sure time. With home computers and the Internet
taking off, publishers experimented with different
methods of content distribution, such as CD-ROMS,
e-books, and print on demand (POD)—in which
books are printed only after an order has been
placed. By printing only what is needed, publishers
using POD technology could save money. Experi-
mentation with content distribution would continue
into the next decade.Harry Potter, Left Behind, and Oprah In 1996,
Oprah Winfrey started her book club. Once a
month, she selected a new title that would be dis-
cussed in a later episode of her show. Oprah’s Book
Club took off, with her selections (many by un-
known authors) becoming best sellers. In 1997, Brit-
ish author J. K. Rowling’sHarr y Potter and the Philoso-
pher’s Stone(published in the United States asHarr y
Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stonein 1998) became a phe-
nomenon with children and adults alike, and
Rowling’s popular sequels continued to be pub-
lished into the following decade. Christian fiction
also surged in popularity and sales during the
1990’s, notably the Left Behind series by Tim
LaHaye and Jerry B. Jenkins, beginning withLeft Be-
hind: A Novel of the Earth’s Last Daysin 1995.Impact The introduction of the large chain book-
store and Internet bookstores such as Amazon.com
changed the publishing industry. Because of their
size and dominance of the market, these large com-
panies were able to sell books at a steep discount,
making it more difficult for smaller, independentThe Nineties in America Publishing 691