over, many Russian political figures were distressed
by continued U.S. calls for the removal of Russian
troops from separatist regions in the newly indepen-
dent, post-Soviet states of Moldova and Georgia, as
well as from the Baltics.
In addition, the United States, Canada, and vari-
ous European countries grew increasingly con-
cerned over alleged human rights abuses commit-
ted by Russia in its renewed war with the renegade
province of Chechnya in late 1999. As the frail and
ailing Yeltsin prepared to bequeath his presidency to
the newly appointed prime minister, Vladimir Putin,
leading Western members (including Clinton) of
the Organization for Security and Cooperation in
Europe, the world’s largest regional security organi-
zation, criticized the outgoing president’s military
conduct in the Chechen conflict. This added yet an-
other layer of angst between Russia and Western na-
tions.
Impact The collapse of the Soviet Union in late
1991 was arguably the seminal event in postwar his-
tory. The West’s major Cold War nemesis had im-
ploded as a result of Gorbachev’s ineffective re-
forms, and its disintegration threatened major
political, economic, and military turmoil in the re-
gion and world. The leaders of both Russia and the
United States, as well as those of other major coun-
tries, were tasked with steering the post-Soviet states,
particularly nuclear-armed Russia, on a path toward
greater stability, which presupposed success toward
the development of a market economy, a democratic
political system, and a less confrontational foreign
policy. Although the record of Russian reform in
each of these areas met with both important suc-
cesses as well as significant and consequential fail-
ures, history will undoubtedly demonstrate that the
successive American and Russian administrations
ultimately chartered a reasonably steady course
through the precarious and troubled waters of the
immediate post-Cold War era.Further Reading
Aron, Leon.Russia’s Revolution: Essays, 1989-2006.
Washington, D.C.: AEI Press, 2007. Essays discuss
major Russian reform efforts in the economic,
political, and foreign policy realms.
Powaski, Ronald E.Return to Armageddon: The United
States and the Nuclear Arms Race, 1981-1999. New
York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Includes ex-
tensive attention to disarmament and the START
I and II agreements.
Remington, Thomas F.Politics in Russia. 5th ed. New
York: Longman, 2008. Presents a broad overview
of the Soviet state, its collapse, and the course of
reform, as well as chapters on Russian political
culture, political party activity, legal reforms, and
Russia’s place in the world.
Shevtsova, Lilia.Yeltsin’s Russia: Myths and Reality.
Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for In-
ternational Peace, 1999. Examines the course of
Russian reform during the Yeltsin era, focusing
especially on his achievements and failures.
Thomas E. RotnemSee also Bosnia conflict; Bush, George H. W.;
Clinton, Bill; Cold War, end of; Dayton Accords; For-
eign policy of Canada; Foreign policy of the United
States; Kosovo conflict; Mulroney, Brian; Space ex-
ploration.736 Russia and North America The Nineties in America