Bergdahl inWhat I Learned from Sam Walton(2004),
“If consumers were choosing Ye Olde Corner Book-
shoppe over Wal-Mart, that bookshop would not be
closing its doors.”
To Walton’s admirers, such as Bergdahl, he was
“the world’s greatest merchant” and possibly “the
most influential business leader of the twentieth
century.” To critics such as Bob Ortega, author ofIn
Sam We Trust(1998), “Walton created a company
and a corporate culture that mirrored his own na-
ture, building an implacable, driven, and manipula-
tive business that uses cutthroat tactics while operat-
ing behind a disarmingly folksy facade.” Both critics
and admirers recognize “the Wal-Martization of the
world” as a major legacy of the 1990’s to the new cen-
tury.
Further Reading
Bergdahl, Michael.What I Learned from Sam Walton:
How to Compete and Thrive in a Wal-Mart World.
Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
Govindarajan, Vijay, and Anil K. Gupta.The Quest
for Global Dominance: Transforming Global Presence
into Global Competitive Advantage. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass, 2001.
Ortega, Bob.In Sam We Trust: The Untold Stor y of Sam
Walton and How Wal-Mart Is Devouring America.
New York: Times Books/Random House, 1998.
Edward Johnson
See also Business and the economy in the United
States; China and the United States; Downsizing and
restructuring; Employment in the United States; In-
come and wages in the United States; Minimum
wage increases; North American Free Trade Agree-
ment (NAFTA); Outsourcing.
Washington, Denzel
Identification American actor
Born December 28, 1954; Mount Vernon, New
York
During the 1990’s, Washington established himself as a
versatile and skilled film star in roles not always defined by
race.
Trained at Fordham University and the American
Conservatory Theater, Denzel Washington began
his career as a stage actor. In the 1980’s, he devel-
oped a broad fan base over six seasons (1982-1988)
on the popular television hospital seriesSt. Elsewhere.
After receiving an Oscar for Best Supporting Actor
for his memorable performance as a defiant slave in
Glor y(1989), Washington quickly moved into lead-
ing parts in independent films, then big-budget
movies; by the mid-1990’s, he had become a Holly-
wood star.
Over the decade, he appeared in eighteen films,
demonstrating tremendous versatility in produc-
tions ranging from Shakespearean comedy, with
Much Ado About Nothing(1993), to science fiction,
withVirtuosity(1995). He was equally successful as a
homophobic lawyer in the celebrated dramaPhila-
delphia(1993), a playful angel in the comedy remake
The Preacher’s Wife(1996), and a quadriplegic homi-
cide detective in the mysteryThe Pelican Brief(1999).
He frequently appeared (often in military or police
uniform) in male-dominated thrillers, appealingly
balancing his natural grace with a virile intensity. In
three films—Mississippi Masala(1991),Devil in a Blue
Dress(1995), andHe Got Game(1998), each directed
by a person of color (Mira Nair, Carl Franklin, and
Spike Lee) on a relatively small budget—an overt
sexuality was often withheld (following Washing-
ton’s wishes).
Among many outstanding performances, two
were exceptional: asMalcolm X(1992) and as the
boxer Rubin Carter inThe Hurricane(1999). The
sense of justified rage that Washington often exudes
found particular expression in his reenactments of
the lives of these two famously mistreated men. Al-
ways meticulous in preparation, the actor brought a
special dedication to the complex role of Malcolm
X, with a resulting performance that stands as one of
the great acting achievements of the decade.
Impact The most honored African American actor
of his generation, Denzel Washington is widely re-
spected for the dignity and depth of his on-screen
performances and the stability and generosity of his
off-screen life.
Subsequent Events In 2001, Washington became
the second African American (following Sidney
Poitier) to win an Oscar for Best Actor for his electri-
fying performance as a rogue cop inTraining Day.
He added producing and directing to his accom-
plishments withAntwone Fisher(2002) andThe Great
Debaters(2007), both based on real-life, unexpected
achievements of African Americans. In 2006, the ac-The Nineties in America Washington, Denzel 905