Participation in Selected Professions Selected ex-
amples of women’s participation in the workforce
help to document trends. Statistics such as the in-
creased number of women graduating from medical
school and law school reflect the general trend. For
example, in medicine, women constituted 7.9 per-
cent of doctors who graduated in 1966 and 42.4 per-
cent of doctors graduating in 1999. In 1990, approxi-
mately 17 percent of physicians were women, but by
2000 the percentage had risen to 24 percent.
The master of business administration (MBA) de-
gree is often seen as the gateway to advancement in
the business world. Although the number of women
who received MBA degrees rose in recent decades,
women constituted only about 30 percent of stu-
dents in MBA programs. In the computer field, the
gender gap was also significant. In 1998, only 14 per-
cent of those who completed their Ph.D. in com-
puter science and engineering were women.
In the legal profession, the number of female
graduates from law schools increased significantly in
the late twentieth century; by the late 1990’s, women
constituted about 50 percent of the students in law
school. As of 1999, 28.9 percent of all lawyers were
women. Although more women were lawyers, it did
not result in a significant increase in the number of
women partners in law firms over the same period.
As of 1998, only 15 percent of the partners in private
law firms were women. Men in law firms also earned
more than their female counterparts. The hours re-
quired for younger lawyers to advance in the firm
were often cited as a reason why women did not ad-
vance in a firm. Although consciousness was raised
about obstacles affecting female lawyers, including
the need to produce many billable hours as well as
workplace culture, little changed. Younger female
attorneys were more likely to opt for part-time status,
in order to juggle family and career, which in turn
adversely affected their chances for advancement
within a firm.
The Earnings Gap Although women’s presence im-
proved considerably in the workplace, an earnings
gap remained. In 1979, women earned 59.6 percent
as much as men; in 1998, women earned 76 percent
as much as men, but the gaps were smaller or larger
depending on occupation, age, and other variables.
The problem of the salary gap is a long trend and af-
fects overall lifetime earnings of men and women and
the amount of money they have upon retirement.
Subtle Obstacles to Progress Studies in the 1990’s
reveal various subtle obstacles to women’s progress
in the workplace. Female managers, for example,
cited the lack of encouragement by their supervi-
sors. Sexual harassment was another problem often
cited. Others reported that they were not taken seri-
ously by their coworkers. Women often indicated
that it was necessary to develop a working style with
which men felt comfortable. It was harder for
women to find a mentor or to network among influ-
ential people within the organization since there
were relatively few women in positions of influence
in the organization.
In the 1990’s, there was growing discussion about
women’s choices between the “fast track” and the
“mommy track.” The former referred to women
whose primary emphasis was their career and the lat-
ter to women who chose to have children or to take
time out to raise their children. Some women on the
“fast track” had children but usually had childcare
support. The “mommy track” women were likely to
advance more slowly and to take a leave of absence
from work.
Women of Color All women face some obsta-
cles, but women of color had an even more difficult
time than white women. Their salaries were lower
and their paths to promotion were slower than those
of white women. In the late 1990’s, women of color
made up 22.6 percent of all women in the workforce
but only 14.6 percent of managers and administra-
tors. Asian American women, especially those of Chi-
nese and Japanese ethnicity, were the most success-
ful among women of color. African American and
Latino women were more heavily represented in the
sales and service industries than white women.
Family and Work-Life Balance Finding work-life
balance was usually cited as one of the major issues
for working women with family responsibilities.
Women’s responsibilities in the home and with their
children did not substantially change with their in-
creased participation in the workforce. Although
younger men played a larger role than their fathers
in the upbringing of their children, the primary bur-
den for childcare remained with women. Numerous
studies also indicated that women spent more time
on housework than their male partners. By the end
of the 1990’s, society had not solved the problem of
childcare for all working women. The responsibility
lay with the family to find and pay for childcare in926 Women in the workforce The Nineties in America