230 CHAPTER 5
Immediately afterwards he names the Pechenegs who paid him tribute. It
could therefore be concluded that Joseph distinguished between the statuses
of the various lands. When he describes territories, inhabited by various ethnic
groups, he means autonomous states and tribes that were nominally a part of
the khaganate and whose subordination was expressed in tribute payment and
in some cases—in troop sending when necessary.26 When he does not men-
tion ethnic groups, but instead talks of urban (settlement) centers, the Khazar
ruler perhaps means his own Khazar territories, regardless of the ethnic groups
that inhabited them (he also never mentions areas, inhabited by Khazars). It
is also worth noting that Joseph omits many centers, situated to the north or
northwest of Sarkel (along the Severski Donets and along the upper reaches of
the Don), which have been discovered through archaeological research.
An interesting touch is the description “as the sand of the sea”, which Joseph
uses for the V-n-n-tr people (Asparukh’s Unogundurs), who were defeated
and chased out of their lands by the fewer in number Khazars. Although it
is not stated outright, it is perhaps implied that the Khazars, initially few in
number, later became numerous. As was already pointed out, the victory
over Asparukh’s Bulgars laid the foundations of the Khazar state, according
to the understanding of Joseph. This expression corresponds to the “many
Bulgarians” one, used in Bulgarian inscriptions. V. Beshevliev seeks its parallel
in the Orkhon Inscriptions, where it is also stated that the khagans transformed
a small people into a numerous one.27 Such descriptions are part of the ruler
ideology in the steppe empires. This expression in particular has a Biblical
parallel—and an Old Testament one at that—which can cast a somewhat
different light on its use in Khazaria. According to the often-cited passage of
Isaiah (ca. 740–700 BC), from the people (of Israel), numerous “as the sand
of the sea”, only the remnants (a much smaller number) will continue God’s
work.28 We cannot know with certainty whether Joseph in his letter to Hasdai
ibn Shaprut, one of the most knowledgeable and high-standing Jews during
the tenth century, had precisely this meaning in mind. The expression “numer-
ous as the sand of the sea” is used once more by the Khazar ruler, this time
regarding the Pechenegs during the tenth century.
26 One good example are the Burtas, mentioned by Joseph along with the other ethnic
groups in the Volga area that paid tribute. This is also confirmed by Eastern sources,
according to which the Burtas inhabited a land that was subordinate to the khaganate
and who sent mounted troops of around 10 000 men when the need arose (see Zakhoder
1962, 251–252; Novosel’tsev 1990, 120).
27 Beshevliev 1992, 143.
28 Campbell 2005, 233.