the golden horde and the black sea 241
4.3 The Problem of the Straits and the Tartar Solution
the Black Sea is a largely enclosed sea, communicating with other seas
and ultimately the ocean through a single exit, the Straits, composed of the
Bosphorus and Dardanelles. It is therefore obvious why every great power
with Black Sea interests has sooner or later had to pay close attention to
this vitally important strategic point. the tartars were no exception.
Khan Berke, who laid the foundations for the Golden horde’s Black Sea
policy,389 was able to recognise the importance of the Straits at a crucial
moment and seek a remedy. Shortly after the alliance against the Ilkhanate
was concluded at cairo in 1263,390 the Straits became an urgent problem
on the geo-strategic map on which the great powers of Western asia and
eastern europe played their game. Since none of the powers involved—the
Golden horde, the Ilkhanate or the Mamluk Sultanate—had a geographic
reach that extended to the Bosphorus and Dardanelles, the struggle to
control them was largely played out through intermediaries.
4.3.1 The Battle for the Straits and for the Seljuk Sultanate
once the Mongol state in persia was established, its founder hülegü con-
sidered himself the rightful suzerain of the anatolian sultan.391 one of his
first acts was to depose ‛Izz al-Dīn Kaykāwuz, who was sharing the throne
with his brother rukn al-Dīn Kilij arslan, for having made an alliance with
the Mamluk Sultan al-Malik al-Ẓāhir Baybars.392
‛Izz al-Dīn took refuge in antalya and petitioned the Byzantine emperor
to shelter him and his people, and give them a new ‘homeland.’393 Michael
VIII palaiologos looked favourably on his request. together with his ret-
inue, he crossed the sea to constantinople where he was received and
treated with great honours.
after he had spent some time in the capital on the Bosphorus, the ex-
sultan had another request for the emperor: ‘We are a turkish people. We
cannot live forever in the city. If we had a place, and a homeland, then
389 See chapter 4.1.3.
390 See chapter 3.3.1.
391 See chapter 2.2.2.
392 this is the explanation given by al-Maqrīzī, Ibn Khaldūn and Ibn Bībī (canard, “un
traité,” p. 212 note 1).
393 cf. Decei, “problema,” p. 170, a work which I have chosen as a standard reference
from the wealth of specialist literature on ‛Izz al-Dīn and the settlement of a large group
of Seljuk turks, led by the dervish Saru Saltuq, from asia Minor to Dobruja.