preliminary remarks 19
the Genoese and Venetians in crimea in 1343:62 the war led to a drastic
drop in trade, which in turn caused two decades of internal strife in the
horde and softened it up for the blow. here timur’s actions can properly
be compared with those of Svyatoslav and Selim I, not just taken in iso-
lation but also in terms of background and consequences: all three con-
querors encountered states weakened by a severe economic crash, which
loosened state structures and made them ready for unravelling.
the khanates which emerged from the collapse of the Golden horde
offer even more convincing proof of the symbiotic relationship between
the khan and the merchants. these Jochid successor states survived not in
the open steppe, as might be expected, but in and around the great com-
mercial centres. even the names of these khanates are instructive: crimea,
astrakhan, Kazan. these were the true commercial strongholds, islands of
trade in a surrounding nomadic landscape.
It is hard for us, accustomed as we are to the realities of today, to imag-
ine the truly exceptional importance of the transit trade in the Middle
ages as a source of revenue. Its role only began to decline with the start
of industrialisation, which increased productivity many times over and
stimulated activity enormously in many different sectors of the economy
which then became major contributors to the budget. as a result, the
transit trade’s remarkable significance in the Middle ages as a resource
supplier to the state can only be explained on the basis of a general feeble-
ness in the rest of the economy. Setting aside regional variations here and
there, and notable exceptions, this was the predominant state of affairs
from the atlantic to the pacific. Under these conditions, it should be no
surprise that in every state that took shape in this vast area, where trade
was a mainstay of power, a relationship of interdependence grew up: the
rulers were principally responsible for safety and security, and the great
merchants were the principal contributors to the budget. this being the
case, it is clear why every ruler had to make his mark as a protector of
commerce, and furthermore why the governing power so often needed
help and support from trade. the numerous wars for control of the routes
also attest to this truth, in the Mongol world as elsewhere.
62 See below, chapters 4.2.5 and 4.2.6.