56 chapter two
the indian ocean to the eastern Mediterranean, one running through the
persian gulf and iraq, the other through the red sea and egypt.
Because an army composed mainly of cavalry encountered continual
problems in advancing through areas with insufficient pasture,88 progress
was slow, as in the campaign of 1236–1242:89 the military phase of this last
westward push by the united chinggisid strength took about ten years.
the advance party under Ket Bugha left Mongolia in the summer of
1252, but the principal body of the army under the commander-in-chief
only set out in autumn the following year. hülegü reached the syr darya in
autumn 1255, and then the following spring he entered iran via Khorasan.
Military operations as such only began in 1257, with the destruction of the
ismaili fortifications in persia; this sect was known throughout the east
as the assassins, and spread terror with their policy of targeted murder.90
in november the imperial army entered iraq, and on 10th February 1258
it conquered Baghdad, capital of the abbasid caliphate.91 this was the
moment when the city which had for centuries been the renowned spiri-
tual centre of islam was razed by barbarians from furthest asia.92
the fall of Baghdad paralysed the Muslim world with shock. resistance
against the invincible Mongol armies seemed futile. in this context, the
conquest of the whole Fertile crescent could only be considered a mere
formality. after capturing the great city on the tigris, hülegü sent a mes-
sage to his brother Möngke, voicing the prevailing mood of cheerful tri-
umphalism and the intention to march onward to victory in syria and
egypt. the news led to understandable euphoria in Qara Qorum.93
Before resuming the campaign, hülegü made sure that he had the sup-
port of his vassal King hethum i of cilician armenia, and of the crusad-
ers led by Bohemond iV. this laid the foundation for Mongol-christian
military alliance against the Muslims.94
88 cf. chapter 1.2.3; allsen, Imperialism, p. 2, comments on the measures that hülegü’s
commanders took to have pasture for their horses.
89 cf. above, pp. 43–44.
90 the Muslim population, freed from this scourge, saw the Mongol commander as
the saviour of their faith, but were cruelly disillusioned some months later when hülegü
destroyed Baghdad, the heart of the sunni faith.
91 the caliph al-Mu‛staṣim was killed together with 24,000 residents, after which the
city was sacked for seventeen days.
92 cf. grousset, Empire, pp. 428–429, spuler, Mongolen, pp. 44–48, allsen, Imperialism,
pp. 58, 83–85, 202–204, 219–220, 224, Jackson, “dissolution,” pp. 220–222.
93 rashīd al-dīn/Jahn, p. 41.
94 that oriental christians served in the chinggisid campaigns was considered an inte-
gral part of the crusade; see for instance Vartan’s eulogy on an armenian compatriot who