68 chapter three
were not able to hold the caucasian lands beyond the Kura.35 also in vain
was the campaign against hülegü’s successor abaqa in 1265–1267, during
which noghai lost an eye but covered himself in glory, whilst Berke, iden-
tified with the cause, died.36
the profound significance in these first military clashes between the
two mongol successor states lies in the patterns of behaviour that they
created: Berke’s heirs would always appear as the aggressors, while hül-
egü’s heirs were always the defenders of the transcaucasus, and of tabriz
at its centre, the priceless silk road city.37
the smouldering conflict over transcaucasia had repercussions as vast
as they were long-lasting, both political38 and commercial,39 both within
and beyond the vast chinggisid realm.
seen in these terms, the only comparable source of conflict was the con-
fluence of the silk road and the iraqi spice route, in cilician armenia.
3.2 Cilician Armenia in the Ilkhanid-Mamluk Struggle
for the Fertile Crescent
the economic value of the eastern mediterranean coast and its iraqi hin-
terland, along with the geographical shape, are well reflected in the name
given to this productive region, the fertile crescent. it was certainly not
the predominantly arid landscape which made this region a promised
land. its particular attraction was rather due to its position on the conver-
gence of all the great transcontinental trade routes. the fertile crescent
was a true centre of trade, collecting and dispersing the products of the
35 the most convincing reconstruction of events is that of spuler, “außenpolitik,”
pp. 27–28; hülegü set out to meet the invaders in august 1262. the ilkhanid vanguard was
destroyed in october or november, but a short while later Berke’s general noghai also suf-
fered a defeat, allowing an ilkhanid counterstrike at the derbent pass in december. after
the mongols of persia crossed the terek, luck favoured the Jochids once more and they
bore down on their enemies in January 1263; despite heavy defeat and massive losses, the
ilkhanid army dug in on the fortified right bank of the Kura and resisted the assaults that
followed, so that the border between the two states remained unchanged (cf. also spuler,
Horde, pp. 42–44, 50).
36 “so blieb Berke der erfolg versagt, den er als hauptaufgabe seines lebens betrachtet
hatte: die Widereroberung des Kaukasus und der angrenzenden länder” (spuler, Horde,
p. 51).
37 “damit war der endgültige Zustand erreicht, der sich in der folgezeit als unabänder-
lich erwies” (ibid.).
38 cf. chapter 3.3.
39 cf. chapter 3.4.