Chapter 9 Maslow: Holistic-Dynamic Theory 281self-actualization and not nearly as high as the scores of people who were definitely
self-actualizing (Shostrom, 1974).
Even though the POI has demonstrated reasonable reliability and validity, some
researchers (Weiss, 1991; Whitson & Olczak, 1991) have criticized the inventory for
failing to distinguish between known self-actualizers and non-self-actualizers. Further-
more, the POI has two practical problems; first, it is long, taking most participants
30 to 45 minutes to complete; and second, the two-item forced-choice format can
engender hostility in the participants, who feel frustrated by the limitations of a forced-
choice option. To overcome these two practical limitations, Alvin Jones and Rick
Crandall (1986) created the Short Index of Self-Actualization (SISA), which borrows
15 items from the POI that are most strongly correlated with the total self-actualization
score. Items on the Short Index are on a 6-point Likert scale (from strongly disagree
to strongly agree). Research (Compton, Smith, Cornish, & Qualls, 1996; Rowan,
Compton, & Rust, 1995; Runco, Ebersole, & Mraz, 1991) on the Short Index of the
POI has indicated that it is a useful scale for assessing self-actualization.
A third measure of self-actualization is the Brief Index of Self-Actualization
(BISA), developed by John Sumerlin and Charles Bundrick (1996, 1998). The orig-
inal Brief Index (Sumerlin & Bundrick, 1996) comprised 40 items placed on a
6-point Likert scale and thus yields scores from 40 to 240. Factor analysis yielded
four factors of self-actualization, but because some items were placed in more than
one factor, the authors (Sumerlin & Bundrick, 1998) revised the Brief Index of
Self-Actualization by eliminating eight items so that no single item was found on
more than one factor. This inventory yields four factors: (I) Core Self-Actualization,
or the full use of one’s potentials; (II) Autonomy; (III) Openness to Experience;
and (IV) Comfort with Solitude. Typical items include “I enjoy my achievements”
(Core Self-Actualization), “I fear that I will not live up to my potential” (a reversed
scored item measuring Autonomy), “I am sensitive to the needs of others” (Open-
ness to Experience), and “I enjoy my solitude” (Comfort with Solitude). The BISA-R
shows strong psychometric properties, that is, it has high internal consistency and
a high test-retest reliability. Furthermore, it correlates highly with the SISA. Sum-
erlin (1997) showed that it correlated positively with measures of psychological
adjustment such as hopefulness and subjective health. It appears to be a useful
measure of self-actualization.
The Jonah Complex
According to Maslow (1970), everyone is born with a will toward health, a ten-
dency to grow toward self-actualization, but few people reach it. What prevents
people from achieving this high level of health? Growth toward normal, healthy
personality can be blocked at each of the steps in the hierarchy of needs. If people
cannot provide for food and shelter, they remain at the level of physiological and
safety needs. Others remain blocked at the level of love and belongingness needs,
striving to give and receive love and to develop feelings of belongingness. Still
others satisfy their love needs and gain self-esteem, but do not advance to the level
of self-actualization because they fail to embrace the B-values (Maslow, 1970).
Another obstacle that often blocks people’s growth toward self-actualization
is the Jonah complex, or the fear of being one’s best (Maslow, 1979). The Jonah