the history of buddhism among the mongols 393
Notwithstanding their leading position, the Sa-skya-pa were not the
only representatives of Tibetan Buddhism that came to the Mongo-
lian court. Basically, Qubilai and his successors continued a policy of
good neighbourship with all religions. It is, therefore, no surprise that
the emperors Úiyaatu/Tu Temür (Wenzong , r. 1330–1332) and
Toon Temür even invited the third Karma-pa Rang-byung-rdo-rje
(1284–1339)^61 and the fourth Karma-pa Rol-pa’i-rdo-rje (1340–1383),^62
the successors to Karma Paki.
The picture that emerges especially from the Chinese sources con-
cerning the role of Tibetan Buddhism in the time of the Yuan Dynasty
is obviously one-sided. The very concrete proofs for its dark side cannot
be denied, but the activities of the Lamas in the Mongolian empire
cannot have been only negative. The question as to how far Tibetan
Buddhism was only a religion of the court and the nobility can be left
aside.^63 It is likely that the Lamas would have also tried to convert the
Mongolian common people. Whatever the success of their missionary
activity with the adherents of the so-called Mongolian shamanism may
have been, it is a fact that at least among the Mongolian princes, a
sincere interest in the new religion existed. The best example for this is
Qubilai, who already discussed the doctrine of the Buddha with Haiyun
and who urged his religious guide ’Phags-pa to compile an introduc-
tion to Buddhism for the crown prince inggim. ’Phags-pa complied
with this request and, in 1278, compiled a short work in Tibetan, titled
“Explanation of what should be known” (Shes-bya rab-gsal).^64 In this
masterly abhidharma tractate, ’Phags-pa describes the complete Bud-
dhist world-view, starting from the four elements and continuing up to
the liberation from suffering. Obviously soon afterwards, the Shes-bya
rab-gsal was translated into Mongolian under the corresponding title
Medegdekün-i belgetey-e geyigülügi.^65 It was thought to be so important that
it was also translated into Chinese in 1306 and incorporated into the
Chinese Buddhist canon.^66
(^61) Douglas & White 1976, p. 49.
(^62) Shakabpa 1967, pp. 71–72; Douglas & White 1976, pp. 55–58.
(^63) The view that Buddhism was only the religion of the upper class is held by Delger
1989, pp. 117–119.
(^64) For an English translation, see Hoog 1979.
(^65) See Bareja-Starzyska 2002, pp. 14–15. The translator is unknown.
(^66) Taish Tripiaka vol. 32, no. 1645: Zhangsuozhi lun , translated by
Shaluoba (Tib. Shar-pa, 1259–1314). See Heissig 1959, p. 28 and Franke
1978, p. 57.