404 the turkic tribes
kings, and court officials from rank 3 and up.
This combined evidence is not commensurate with an overlord-vassal
relationship in which the Eastern Turkish qaghans were subservient
to China. The only qaghan who with any justification can be called
a vassal was Ssu-li-pi.
Not much is said in the sources about the kind of gifts exchanged,
i.e. government trade, and this may have played a subordinate role.
There was little need for the Eastern Turks to present horses, since
these could be sold in ordinary commercial transactions at border
markets. Many missions may therefore have been concerned with
political matters important to both sides, as for instance the Chinese
seeking peace and the Turks seeking princesses. However, when rela-
tions improved from 726 and fewer contentious matters needed to
be discussed, the number of Turkish missions increased. This would
indicate an emphasis on the exchange of goods.
Relations between China and the Western Turks were much less
intense, numerically, politically, and militarily. The interest of the
Western Turks lay in the far west, where they dealt with Persia and
even Byzantium, and they were no threat to Chinese borderlands.
Conflicts only arose when the Pu-chia Qaghan tried to unite all the
Turks from 600 and after China from 640 expanded into the Tarim
Basin. No Western Turkish qaghan was a Chinese vasal. When Ch’u-
lo surrendered in 611, he was isolated and only acted for himself. He
was given a Chinese princess in marriage in 614. Only one qaghan
was recognized by the T’ang. No Chinese state mourning was held
for any Western Turkish qaghan.^36
Since the Western Turks had little of substance to discuss with the
Chinese other than the usual request for a princess, and since they
did not have official joint markets with the Chinese, a chief purpose
of their missions must have been trade.
According to Sui shu 84:12a, the Ch’i-min Qaghan of the Eastern
Turks annually offered gifts. Three missions are recorded for 607.
According to Chiu T’ang shu 194A:1b, the Ch’u-lo Qaghan of the East-
ern Turks incessantly sent envoys from 619. No missions are recorded.
According to Tzu-chih t’ung-chien p.6168, the Sha-po-lo Qaghan of
(^36) The T’ang did not confer posthumous titles on deceased reigning qaghans of
either the Eastern or Western Turks.