50 continental south asia and the islands
extent than Chiao-chih, brought to China goods which it in turn had
obtained from abroad. It was situated on the great trade route between
the Asian continent and the island archipelago south of it, and also on
the route between East and Southeast Asia and the Middle East. It
was a flourishing emporium of transit-goods and together with Chiao-
chih China’s most important trading partner. The importance of this
trade to both Champa and the Sung is brought out by the report of
the Ministry of Rites to Emperor Che-tsung on Sep.24, 1086, that
Champa wished to continue to offer regional objects and that this was
immediately accepted (Hsü Tzu-chih t’ung-chien ch’ang-pien p.3672).
The Sung repaid the kings of Champa and their envoys with silver,
strings of copper cash, caps, golden belts, garments (sometimes adorned
with pearls), silk, gold and silver vessels, porcelain vessels, tea vessels
(of porcelain), bedding, banners, armour, military equipment, swords,
lances, bows, arrows, horses, armoured horses, and horse trappings.
However, the relations between Sung and Champa were not
exclu sively commercial. Between them was situated the kingdom
of Chiao-chih in Northern Vietnam. Champa and Chiao-chih were
traditionally on bad terms, in addition to which the latter for much of
the period was a not a wholy reliable neighbour of Northern Sung. In
981, Chiao-chih was attacked by Sung forces, allied with Champa. In
985 and 990, Chiao-chih attacked Champa. In 995, 1028, 1036, 1059,
1060, 1075, and 1076, it violated the Chinese border. In 1076, Sung
fought a brief war against Chiao-chih, seeking the support of Champa
and the Khmer kingdom. In 1092, Champa proposed a joint attack
on Chiao-chih. We have here, therefore, a classical example of one
country allied with another located behind a potential common enemy, a
diplomatic practice which can be observed throughout world history. It
should also be noted that among the commodities provided by China
to Champa were military equipment, weapons, and armoured horses,
whereas Champa supplied China with naphta. In short, China and
Champa cooperated for both trade and military advantage.
To-mien
According to Wen-hsien t’ung-k’ao 332:16b, representatives of the T’ang
reached this country for the first time between 627 and 649. They
noted that the people were short and that they practiced polyandry,
whereby brothers married the same woman.
In the 8th month (Aug./Sep.) of 661, envoys from the king of