conclusion 683toward Liao. In 944, Uighur envoys to the Khitan court unsuccessfully
requested a marriage. In 986, Li Chi-ch’ien of Hsia requested a mar-
riage from Liao. Emperor Sheng-tsung approved and in 989 married
the Princess of Yi-ch’eng to him. In 996, the Lion King (Arslan) of
probably Turfan unsuccessfully requested a marriage from the Liao
court. In 996, the king of Koryo, Wang Ch’ih (Songjong), married
a daughter’s daughter of Emperor Ching-tsung of Liao. In 1031, the
Liao Princess of Hsing-p’ing was married to the Hsia heir-apparent Li
Yüan-hao. In 1054, 1100, 1102, and 1103, Hsia envoys to the Liao
court unsuccessfully requested marriages. In 1105 the Liao Princess
of Ch’eng-an was married to Li Ch’ien-shun of Hsia. That adds up
to three Liao princesses married to Hsia rulers and one to a Koryo
king.
It has been seen that the rulers of only eight foreign countries or
tribes (the Hsi, the Khitan, the T’u-yü-hun, Turfan, Ferghana, the
Eastern Turks, the Uighurs, and Tibet) entered into political marriages
with Chinese imperial families.
In the same way, only certain foreign countries and tribes (Chiao-
chih/Annam, Champa, Koguryo, Paekche, Silla, Koryo, the Hsi,
Po-hai, Tibet, Nan-chao, the Eastern Turks, the Uighurs, Kan chou,
Sha chou, the Arabs, Hsia, and the Khitan) had sporadic ritual rela-
tions (congratulations, death announcements, testamentary gifts, state
mournings, condolences) with China, until these vastly increased and
reached full maturity in the mutual exchange of missions by Sung,
Liao, and Chin. It is clear that with few exceptions China had ritual
relations only with countries and tribes close to it. South Asia (except
for Vietnam) and the islands, Japan, East and West Turkestan, Kash-
mir, Afghanistan, and the Middle East (except for the Arabs) were
not involved.
This is the total number of recorded datable missions from all foreign
countries and tribes to Sui, T’ang, the Five Dynasties, Northern Sung,
and Southern Sung, 2809 in all, arranged by 20-year periods:
578- 606: 45
607- 626: 142
627- 646: 239
647- 666: 116
667- 686: 45
686- 706: 55
707- 726: 198
727- 746: 168