: 749
referred to as “touching the throat” (napi“tam lapàtum) had to be per-
formed by each king. This ceremony has hitherto been understood
as a purely symbolic gesture of pledge but new evidence from Tell
Leilan shows that actual blood samples of kings could be transported
and exchanged and, most likely, played a role in the ceremony.^133.4 Terms
Most references to treaties in letters are not specific as to the exact
terms of the agreement but concern general forms of military and
political alliances. Specific ad hoc agreements include a defensive
treaty between Mari and Babylon against Elam.^14 The best evidence
for the contents of political treaties comes from actual treaty docu-
ments. A few fragments of such material have been found in south-
ern Mesopotamia, but the only substantial pieces are from Mari^15
and Leilan.^16 The material from the latter site includes major por-
tions of five different treaty tablets, which originally contained sev-
eral hundred lines of text. Four of these compositions relate to political
alliances between kings of Leilan and neighboring kings and have
the same basic format and contents. Prefixed by a lengthy adjura-
tion formula that lists the gods to be sworn to are stipulations about
general cooperation, followed by long sections with curses. The pre-
served clauses mainly concern six themes: (1) purpose of the treaty,
(2) non-annulment clauses, (3) auxiliaries and military matters, (4)
political loyalty, (5) vassals, and (6) treatment of citizens from the
other city state.3.5 Old Assyrian Commercial Treaties
The important activities of Assyrian merchant firms trading with Ana-
tolian kingdoms occasioned the city of Assur to conclude treaties with
these kingdoms, specifying mutual obligations, including the tariffs
and tolls applying to imported goods, and security for the traders.
Evidence for this is found in Old Assyrian letters and now also in
two examples of treaty texts, from Kanesh itself, and from Leilan.^17(^13) Eidem, Leilan, pt. II.1.2.2.
(^14) Charpin, “Alliance contre l’Elam...”
(^15) Durand, “Fragments.. .”; Charpin, “Une traité entre Zimri-Lim.. .”; Joannès,
“Le traité de vassalité...”
(^16) Eidem, Leilan, Part II. See, provisionally, Eidem, “Archives...de Tell Leilan,”
“Leilan Tablets.. .,” “Old Assyrian Treaty.. .,” and “Leilan Archives...”
(^17) See respectively Bilgiç, “Ebla.. .,” and Eidem, “Old Assyrian Treaty...”
westbrook_f20_744-752 8/27/03 1:33 PM Page 749