A History of Ancient Near Eastern Law

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the content of the contract. Witnesses to early Demotic contracts

either generally write out the entire contract on the recto of the

papyrus or sign their name alone on either the recto (beneath the

body of the text) or on the verso of the papyrus. Signatures only

become a common practice in the Third Intermediate abnormal

hieratic documents.^157

3.3.2 Oath

As throughout Egyptian history, oaths play an important role in the

Third Intermediate period.^158 An oath of satisfaction is sworn by the

seller in P. BM 10800,^159 while one party takes an oath in connec-

tion with the slave transaction of P. Louvre 3228c.^160

4. PS

4.1 Citizenship

4.1.1 The multi-ethnic character of the Third Intermediate period

is quite marked, the dynastic rulers themselves being often Libyans

and Nubians. Nevertheless, it is difficult to discern the practical

significance attributed by the ancient Egyptians to such ethnic dif-

ferences, especially since Libyans and Nubians readily accept Egyptian

cultural and social norms. As in earlier periods, people in documents

are generally identified by their occupations, genealogy, or geographical

connections. While ethnicity may be acknowledged or mentioned, the

few legal texts, to my knowledge, do not treat ethnicity as a factor

on any level.^161

4.1.2 The standard New Kingdom designation nm ̇, “free person,

citizen,” appears also in Third Intermediate texts. In the Dakhla

Stela, “waters of a nm ̇” are contrasted with “waters of pharaoh.”^162

(^157) Eyre, “Employment.. .,” 15.
(^158) Overview in Menu, “Le serment.. .” Seidl discerns both assertory and promis-
sory oaths in the abnormal hieratic documents (Ägyptische Rechtsgeschichte.. ., 53–54).
(^159) Edwards, “Bill of Sale.. .,” 122.
(^160) Malinine, “Jugement.. .,” 159; cf. also Seidl, Ägyptische Rechtsgeschichte.. ., 34–35;
Bakir, Slavery.. ., 63–64.
(^161) The subjects of “slave sales” are sometimes designated “men of the North,”
these being presumably northerners captured during the Nubian campaigns.
(^162) Gardiner, “Dakhleh Stela.. .,” 21. Nm ̇(“private owner”) also appears in the
Inscription of Maatkare (Gardiner, “Gods of Thebes.. .,” 66). Niwinski, “Some
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