A History of Ancient Near Eastern Law

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4.3 Gender and Age

4.3.1 Women were able to conduct legal transactions: they could

own and acquire property, conclude contracts, and enter into oblig-

ations even in the absence of their husbands.^67 They do not, how-

ever, appear as witnesses to contracts. If a contract affected their

interests and their presence was necessary in order to forestall future

claims, a special phrase is used: ina a“àbi “a“in the presence of...”^68

4.3.2 There was no age of majority, but the term itbari, “able-bod-

ied,” is used for persons aged six and over who are able to work.

Rosters for farm work, military service, and corvée name children

between three and five years of age alongside the head of family

and other working members of the family.^69 A son became inde-

pendent only on his father’s death, when he inherited the estate. He

could only marry with the permission of his father, who could other-

wise have the marriage annulled (Cyr. 312).^70

4.4 Slaves^71

4.4.1 Terminology

Slaves were designated by the same terms as in earlier periods,

namely ardu (ÌR) for male and amtu (GÉME) for female (status:

ardùtu/amtùtu). In addition, other terms were used: qallu/qallatu(lit.,

“little one”) and the collectives amèlùtu, “people,” lamùtànu, “servants,”

and ni“ìbìti, “household.” All these terms are interchangeable, the

same person being described in a single document as qalluand ardu

and being included under the amèlùtu. All these terms could be used

to designate slaves as the object of a transaction by their owner (sale,

transfer of ownership, pledge, or hire).

(^67) For example, Ina-Esagil-ramat, wife of Iddin-Marduk, appears in a series of
documents drafted during her husband’s lifetime. She is not identified as his wife
except on the rare occasions when she acts on her husband’s behalf. Cf. Wunsch,
Iddin-Marduk.. ., vol. 1, 68.
(^68) See Lewenton, Rechtspraxis.. ., 87–88.
(^69) Jursa, Die Landwirtschaft.. ., 8f.
(^70) Edited by Joannès, “Les textes judiciaires.. .,” 206–8.
(^71) The most comprehensive survey of slavery in this period is by Dandamaev,
Slavery...
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