340 angelika berlejung
the use of the semitic language, in the archaeological records and mate-
rial culture between the 2nd and 1st millennia B.C.6 in the iron age i
the (“aramaean”) rural-pastoral mode of life (with a limited mobility not
necessarily implying nomadic life) replaced the late Bronze age urban
lifestyle, and the tribes replaced the former states as the basic unit of col-
lective organization.
even if the name “aramaean” is only attested since the 12th century B.C.,
the names of some “aramaean” tribes are already known from cuneiform
sources of the 13th century (e.g., the tribe Bit Zamanni in the area north
of tur ʿabdin in texts from tell Billa of the 13th century B.C.).7 therefore
different (“aramaean”) tribes with different names seem to be the start-
ing point of the later tribal confederations that gradually developed into
a (complex of ) sheik-/chief- and kingdom(s). each tribe was organized
along tribal lines whose units were segmented in social patrilineages with
elders, sheikhs, and/or chiefs; after the rise of statehood the new tribal
confederations were ruled by chiefs or kings with their dynasties. this
tribal structure based on kinship is typical not only for the aramaeans,
but also for the tribes, tribal confederations, and later (mini-)sheikh-/
chief-/kingdoms of iron age palestine; these parallels in the social struc-
ture may have facilitated the integration of the aramaeans into the bibli-
cal worldview.
in the 12th and 11th centuries B.C. the rural-pastoral aramaean tribes
had settled syria peacefully, and even founded some urban centers (as
e.g., ʿain dara), therefore initiating the re-urbanization process and long-
distance trade in their areas. in the east their expansion had been stopped
by the assyrians and in central syria by the luwian kingdom of hamath,
which only later came under aramaean rule (see the Zakkur-inscription;
kai 202). in the inscriptions of aššur-bēl-kala (1073–1056 B.C.) the area
of the upper khabur and tur ʿabdin is called kur.A-ri-me (= “land of the
aramaeans”).8 this indicates that some territories west and northwest of
assyria were now considered aramaean habitats. in the 1st millennium
B.C. the aramaeans were the dominant population group in syria; their
rise to political power had been made possible by the collapse of the late
6 akkermans – schwartz 42006: 361 and sader 2010: 277–280.
7 finkelstein 1953: nos. 6 and 17; lipiński 2000a: 45–50. for Bet Zamanni, see dion
1997: 34f, 352–355 and lipiński 2000a: 135–161.
8 rima 2, a.0.89.2. iii 27’–28’; a.0.89.3: 6’; a.0.89.6: 7’; a.0.89.9:4’; very important:
a.0.89.7 iii 1–32. see further adad-nirari ii (909–889 B.C.) a.0.99.2: 33 (kur aḫ-la-me-e
kur ar-ma-a-ia.meŠ).