society, institutions, law, and economy 41
cults) as well as in art and in architecture, it becomes evident that the new
aramaean élites co-opted and continued regional and local customs.25
in the oldest inscription from Samʾal (Kai 24), we have a good example
of ethnic diversity in an aramaean kingdom. the two terms mškbm and
bʿrrm in lines 9–15 probably describe two different ethnic groups in the
area of Samʾal. the lines hint at a relationship full of prior conflict. the
mškbm might have represented the indigenous non-aramaean population
of Samʾal.26 King Kulamuwa boasts of how he improved the conditions for
the mškbm under his rule. Because of his sense of responsibility for these
people, he provided them with a high social status and they in turn assured
him of their loyalty. p. e. dion takes into consideration the fact that the
mškbm were partly independent farmers with their own estates and partly
farmers who worked for the noble landowners and, after the assyrian
annexation, for the domains of assyrian officials.27 the bʿrrm were probably
connected with the new aramaean population. e. Lipiński classifies them
as nomadic and semi-nomadic herdsmen.28 the peaceful co-existence of
both groups obviously granted Samʾal a period of economic prosperity.
the curses of Kulamuwa’s inscription make clear how much the inter-
nal peace depended upon this co-existence. the loss of mutual respect
between the two groups may be behind the curse threatening those who
destroy the inscription (Kai 24: 14–15).
1.4 The Family—House of the Fatherthe inscriptions of the kings of Samʾal mention several times the “house
of the father” (byt ʾb) as a designation for the royal dynasty.29 however,
the patriarchal structure behind this expression concerns all familial enti-
ties at all levels of society. the size of a small family in contrast to the
branched clan or even the tribe is difficult to estimate. the treaties of
Sefire (Kai 222–224) mention brothers, sisters, children, and grandchil-
dren of the kings. “Brothers” does not necessarily mean full brothers in
direct lineage but may define the broader relations of the clan or the tribe
the 9th century B.c. “stimulated innovative symbiotic renderings or hybrids... creating a
genuine style and a new tradition which brought about eventually material ‘cohabitation’.”
25 cf. the contributions of d. Bonatz and m. novák in this volume.
26 Lipiński 2000a: 236 and others consider them as the descendants of the older Luwian
population. Lipiński traces the noun mškb back to the root škb ‘to settle.ʼ
27 dion 1997: 286f.
28 Lipiński 2000a: 236 traces bʿrr back to the root bʿr ʻto roam.ʼ tropper 1993: 45 trans-
lates “die wilden.”
29 Kai 24: 5; 214: 9; 215: 2, 3, 7; 216: 7; 217: 3.