For nearly two and a half centuries, Amer-
ica’s most constant military opponents were
the Native Americans. Despite varied origins
and languages, they were determined to de-
fend their land against European expansion.
A succession of capable chiefs, from Canon-
chet and Sassacus to American Horse and Lit-
tle Wolf, all tried and failed to stop their more
numerous and technologically superior oppo-
nents. In the course of these sporadic hostili-
ties, both sides committed unspeakable atroc-
ities and should be condemned for such
deeds. Still, Amerindians of every variety did
not surrender their homeland peacefully, and
they fought with a tenacity and sacrifice that
is truly admirable. Collectively, they were for-
midable opponents.
The French colonialists of Canada also
proved a force to reckon with. The noted
sailor D’Iberville was the terror of northern
Maine during King William’s War and Queen
Anne’s War, and his Gallic counterparts of the
decisive French and Indian War like Levis,
Bourlamaque, and the immortal Montcalm
also fought with distinction. Defeat does not
diminish their well-deserved reputations for
bravery and technical competence.
In 1775 the burgeoning American colonies,
having dispensed with numerous Indian and
French obstacles, finally coalesced into a new
country—the United States—and declared in-
dependence. This act brought them face-to-
face with the redoubtable army and navy of
Great Britain, which possessed highly trained,
rigorously disciplined soldiers and sailors. In
turn, they were led by some of the finest tacti-
cal minds of their age: Howe, Cornwallis,
Clinton, Parker, and Grey. Outnumbered but
almost never outfought, the vaunted redcoats
came very close to extinguishing a sometimes
clumsy American war effort through their un-
paralleled battlefield prowess. In addition, the
numerous professional German soldiers they
hired—the Hessians—were also worthy ad-
versaries when led by the likes of Gens.
Knyphausen and Riedesel. Fortunately, U.S.
forces improved with experience, and the war
was successfully concluded. The British were
tough professional adversaries, but they usu-
ally subjected themselves to closely pre-
scribed laws of war. The same cannot be said
for their Loyalist allies, for whenever Ameri-
cans fought Americans the result was usually
desperation and slaughter. In this respect the
American Revolution more closely resembles
a civil war and all the animosity such contests
engender.
With independence won, the new United
States became a player on the world stage, al-
though lacking a major army or navy to pro-
tect its interests. The Barbary pirates of North
Africa were quick to sense such weakness,
and their rapaciousness stimulated the first
American military expedition abroad. Shortly
after, the United States found itself embroiled
in the War of 1812 against England—itself an
outgrowth of the larger Napoleonic conflagra-
tion. Again, the badly trained and poorly led
American levies were pitted against splendid
professionals—with predictable results. On
land, Isaac Brock remains hailed as the savior
of Canada, whereas the lesser-known but
equally capable Gordon Drummond per-
formed similar work against American forces
that were much better prepared. At sea, the
Royal Navy was initially surprised by the vi-
tality of the small but highly effective U.S.
Navy. But within a year, Captain Philip Broke
ended a string of American naval victories by
capturing the USS Chesapeake.Shortly after,
British army and naval forces under Admirals
George Cockburn and Alexander Cochrane
made their presence felt throughout Chesa-
peake Bay—and even burned the U.S. capital.
If anything, the War of 1812 underscored
America’s dire necessity for adopting rational
defense schemes and maintaining trained
forces that were second to none. It was a les-
son painfully learned.
Ironically—and tragically—America’s most
bitter enemies came from among its own citi-
zens. The Civil War of 1861–1865 was eventu-
ally suppressed, but it resulted in higher casu-
alties than any other conflict in U.S. history.PREFACE ANDACKNOWLEDGMENTS
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