Poland, Finland, and other anticommunist countries channeled funds to
the association, unaware the money was going to the Kremlin. Worse,
the association lured genuine anti-Soviet resistance fighters to their
deaths. Moscow kept the ruse going for six years before being found
out. See alsoDENIAL/DECEPTION OPERATION.TURNER, STANSFIELD (1923– ).Twelfth director of central intel-
ligence (DCI) between 9 March 1977 and 20 March 1981. Acareer
naval officer with little intelligence training, Turner brought an apo-
litical and professional management style into the intelligence com-
munity (IC) in the wake of the congressional investigations into mis-
deeds by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and other
intelligence agencies. As part of his managerial reforms, Turner
downplayed human intelligence (HUMINT) collection in favor of
technical means of intelligence collection, arguing that they were
more efficient and less controversial. Consequently, he eased many
case officersout of the CIA. Turner’s moves probably destroyed the
CIA’s ability to clandestinely collect information from human assets
in the Middle East and elsewhere, which resulted in the CIA’s failure
to forecast the Islamic Revolution in Iranand the Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan, both in 1979.
In addition to refocusing intelligence, DCI Turner opened up the
world of intelligence to increased public scrutiny. To underscore
greater openness, Turner established the Office of Public Affairs in
the CIA and initiated the practice of giving press briefings and al-
lowing the media to interview intelligence officers. Stansfield Turner
is now an author and Senior Research Scholar at the Center for In-
ternational and Security Studies at the University of Maryland.– U –
U-2.The U-2, which stands for Utility-2, is a high altitude photorecon-
naissance airplane that in the 1950s was initially designed to elude So-
vietantiaircraft missiles. When the Cold Warbegan in the late 1940s,
the U.S. government sought various ways to gather information about
Soviet military and economic capabilities. A1954 presidential com-
mission recommended that the United States build an aircraft thatU-2• 20705-398 (2) Dictionary.qxd 10/20/05 6:27 AM Page 207