- chapter 37: Villanovan and Etruscan mining and metallurgy –
The ore that supplied the iron industry in Populonia came from the neighboring island
of Elba, and also from iron-bearing deposits in the district of Campiglia Marittima. This
area also provided, presumably, the copper ore that was smelted in the furnaces of the city.
The lowest levels of the deposits on the Baratti beach, in fact, contain numerous slags
from the copper smelting, an indication that at Populonia a relevant production of this
metal too occurred around the sixth-fi fth century bc (Benvenuti et al. 2000: 74).
Evidence of copper metallurgy, dating from the seventh and sixth centuries bc, was
found in Poggio Civitate (Murlo), a site near the Colline Metallifere, a strategic point
between the Etruscan inland and coastal centers. Here, at Pian del Tesoro, in different areas
of the plateau, there came to light distinct areas associated with both copper smelting
and working and the remains of smelting furnaces (Nielsen 1993). From Poggio Civitate
comes evidence of iron working, too: a scorifi ed bar of iron, in particular, seems to have
been produced during an experimental attempt to obtain metallic iron from wüstite
existing in the copper slag, through an ingenious process of re-smelting (Warden 1993:
44–45).
Evidence of metallurgical activity, not related to the ore smelting, but rather to copper
casting and to iron forging, is attested in some of the centers of southern Etruria. At
Vulci, the only indication of such an activity is constituted by a clay mold drawn from
a metal object, most likely used to produce multiple bronze objects (Kent Hill 1981).
Nevertheless, the presence of a large number of metal artifacts in the tombs ever since the
Villanovan period led to the hypothesis that an important craft center fl ourished here,
specialized in the production of metal ornaments, weapons, tableware, etc. Unfortunately,
especially in the past, the archaeological excavations have been concentrated on cemeteries,
neglecting the settlement until relatively recent times (see Arancio et al. 2006: 61–66).
The settlement of La Castellina del Marangone, near Civitavecchia (Rome), yielded
abundant evidence of metallurgy, indicating that the site had to be a base for intense
activity of artisans who not only worked bronze, but also worked iron; remains of
crucibles, nozzles, semi-fi nished artifacts and smithing slag were found together with
fi nished objects (Giardino 2011). Of particular interest are a couple of crucibles: their
analyses have shown that on the site copper, lead and tin were alloyed, mixing together
these metals; tin was used in the form of its mineral (cassiterite), or else as a pure metal
(Rovira 2011: 977–980).
Evidence of craft activities also comes from the Etruscan settlement of San Giovenale
(seventh-fi fth century bc), in the territory of Blera (Viterbo), where slags from hammering
were found in many areas of the “Borgo” and in the Acropolis, clear evidence of forging of
iron (Fig. 37.15); a small bar of bronze, evidently a semi-fi nished product, indicates also
the manufacture of copper alloys (Guidi et al. 2005). Substantial waste from production
processes was found in Cerveteri. One smithing slag was found from an Orientalizing
context in the urban area of Caere (Sant’Antonio) (Guidi, Trojsi 2001). There are numerous
metallurgical indicators from excavations in the area of Vigna Parrocchiale too, where the
dump of a foundry came to light that was specialized in the casting of bronzes using the
lost wax technique (Guidi, Trojsi 2003; Bellelli 2005). Large conical crucibles (some
over 50 cm in diameter), tuyeres (bellows’ nozzles) and residues of the refractory external
mantles used in the manufacture of the articles have been found there. The analysis of
the slag shows that iron objects were forged at the site, in addition to copper casting. It
should be noted that in the early fi fth century bc the complex was close to a sacred area,
which suggested that it was used for the construction yard of the temple.