she stands out or is the sole woman in a scene;
among groups one can differentiate small groups
depicted on naturalistic style seals, perhaps prin-
cesses, priestesses, or other elite women, groups on
schematic seals performing ritual tasks, perhaps
cultic personnel, and groups of working women.WOMEN IN EARLY DYNASTIC
CITY-STATES
No other period in Mesopotamian history yielded
such rich and varied material on women as the
Early Dynastic period. Numerous women of dif-
ferent social status are named in written records, or
are represented on reliefs, seals, and other objects,
or in form of statues, and at Ur some women were
buried in the Royal Cemetery in splendid tombs
together with attendants.
The idea of citizenship may not have been alien
to Early Dynastic Sumerians, who identified
persons with their home city, city-state and/or its
proprietary deity. Presumably women were also
considered “citizens” although heads of a family
were generally men but women also had this func-
tion in certain circumstances. Women citizens, in
particular married, divorced or widowed, had legal
agency that Uruinimgina (c. 2350 ) tried to restrict at
the end of the Early Dynastic period. Complex
terminology indicates many different social groups
had access to more, less, or hardly any resources
other than food and clothes rations.
Real-estate transactions were inscribed on stone, some also with images. Two women
are named and depicted on the so-called “Ushumgal stele,” an Early Dynastic I
(c. 2900 – 2800 ) document recording transaction of property (Figure 18. 3 ). On one side
Ushumgal faces a building into which a peg is inserted as proof and proclamation of
the transaction. Ushumgal was the “pap-sˇesˇ’-priest of Shara, proprietary god of Umma.
The second principal figure is his daughter Sˇara’igizi-Abzu whose title remains obscure.
She is followed by a smaller-sized woman, the daughter of Mesi, “pap-sˇesˇ’-priest of the
Enun-temple, and may be a witness. The three men behind Ushumgal hold high
positions and may either authorize or witness the transaction of 158. 75 hectares of land,
three houses and cattle. Apparently Ushumgal had no sons and therefore bestowed his
possessions on his presumably unmarried daughter. Her importance is evident in the
composition as she is equal in height to her father and occupies one side of the stele,
whereas the other figures are smaller and occupy less space. If interpretation of the
difficult text is correct, Sˇara’igizi-Abzu became a very rich woman.
Texts, statues, and scenes with ritual themes attest to women’s presence in temples.
In Lagash other members of the royal family received offerings (Figure 18. 4 ); the only
–– Women and agency ––Figure 18.2Statuette of woman
from Khafajah, Jemdet Nasr
period (Baghdad, Iraq Museums.
After Frankfort, OIP 60 : pl. 1 )