husband’s responsibilities were herds and husbandry. Private family estates are attested
for the first time and according to their records employed single women and mothers
not protected by either husband or family, but not girls, old men or women. Women,
whether married or unmarried were scribes, musicians, singers, cup-bearers, midwives,
wet-nurses, and could independently conduct business and mingle with men.
Gémecontinued to work in textile production, milling, households, or occasionally
as shepherds of pigs, but they could be moved around to do other tasks. Among the
female work force were also groups just called “women” (munus), who may have been
local Sumerians forced by the Akkadians to work for them. Slaves were either prisoners
of war, or poor people who worked to pay off debt; women were often sold into slavery
by their father or brother.
According to Aage Westenholz ( 1999 : 70 – 71 ) from the queen to ordinary married or
unmarried women, Sumerian or Akkadian, women “were free to participate in public
life, on a par with men and mingle freely with men”; he concludes that women could
do the same things men did on an equal basis “but few did” which means they did not
take advantage of their agency.^2
Although there is no evidence of different rules and norms for Akkadian and
Sumerian women, it cannot be excluded that different traditions and mentalities influ-
enced notions about sexual difference and gendered behavior. Women’s lives certainly
were influenced by constant warfare which in Sumerian cities meant husbands,
brothers, and sons had to fight for a foreign king often far away from home. But those
women not forced into labor may have had more agency while men were absent and
when they did not return.
–– Julia M. Asher-Greve ––Figure 18.6Akkadian seal with inscription and libation scene (Chicago, The Oriental
Institute Museum A 7123. Courtesy of The Oriental Institute Chicago)