SUMER AND ELAM IN THE TEXTSTextual knowledge is assymetrical; meaning that the texts of the third millennium
come exclusively from Mesopotamia, their neighbors remain illiterate. The texts are
referred to as being “historical–literary” in which mythology and propaganda are mixed
with historical “facts,” which themselves require careful scrutiny (Michalowski 1992 ,
1995 ; Liverani 2006 , 2004 ).
One of the most famous such texts is “Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta” (Vanstiphout
2003 ; Cohen 2000 ). Enmerkar, the ruler of Uruk, is engaged in negotiations with the
ruler of Aratta who lives far to the east. Enmerkar wishes to obtain precious stones, lapis
lazuli, carnelian, and other preciosities, to embellish his temple of Inanna. Messengers
go back and forth. Favorable negotiations bring a consignment of precious goods to
Enmerkar in return for a donkey caravan of grain. The negotiations include a battle of
wits between Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, a timeless motif between contending
kings. The epic contains fantasy, riddles, legend, and myth wrapped around elusive
kernels of history from which many extract interpretation and models of economic
relationship (Kohl 1973 ). The epic poem is taken to illustrate: Sumerian supremacy over
foreign countries; the importance of its principal exports: wheat, manufactured goods,
and textiles; the invention of long distance trade, and, most significantly, writing. In fact,
third millennium Mesopotamian texts involving long distance trade are exceedingly
scarce. Mesopotamian trade was largely restricted to exchange between city-states
involving textiles, fleece, grain, perfumes, fats, and dried fish. Trade in luxury com-
modities as gold, silver, lapis, carnelian, in general all luxury goods, were under the
control, and for the consumption of the elites.
The texts afford us glimpses of the political relatons that characterized
Mesopotamian–Elamite relations. Below we list Sumerian Kings, dates, and their
relationship with their Elamite counterparts (adopted with alterations from Giovanni
Pettinato 1972 ).
Enmebaragesi 2680 (?) Mentioned in the Sumerian King
Lists as the King of Kish, during its
First Dynasty, who reined for 900
years and as “the one [who] broke the
weapons of Elam.”
Elamite Dynasty 2600 – 2500 (?) The city of Ur was defeated. The
of Awan Sumerian King list states it “kingship
taken to Awan’” (Jacobsen 1939 : 95 ,
iv, 117 ).
Second Dynasty of Kish 2550 Awan was defeated its kingship taken
to Kish.
Elamite Dynasty of (?) Power shifts to Elamites.
Hamazi
Lugalannemundu of Adab(?) Warred with Dynasty of Marhashi
and Gutium and received tribute
from a governor of Elam.–– Iran and its neighbors ––