delicacy (Charpin et al. 2004 : 974 ; Englund 1995 ). The luxurious Yale recipes mainly
use unspecified meat (ˇı ̄rums ) but include lamb broth (mê puh
̆
a ̄di), kid broth (mê unı ̄qi),
venison (stag) broth (mê ayali) and gazelle broth (mê s.abı ̄tim) (Bottéro 1995 : 36 – 38 ,
44 ). Recipe ingredients include offal, specifically blood (da ̄mu), fat (lipûm), persu-entrails,
stomach (karsˇu) and spleen (t.ulı ̄mu) (Bottéro 1995 : 31 , 46 , 161 ). The sheep is probably
the source of the fat and possibly all the offal.
BirdsThe goose (u ̄ sum) and the duck (paspasu) were domesticated and fed on grain; trapped
wild birds included marsh birds, the francolin (?) (tarru) and the amursa ̄nu-pigeon
(Unger 1957 – 71 : 140 ; Dalley 2002 : 81 – 82 ; Sasson 2004 : 193 ). Many Old Babylonian
bird names cannot be identified. We have references to duck eggs and eggs in general
and a cluster of information about the ultimate egg served to the king of Mari, that
of the ostrich (lurmum), which could be prepared using oil; eggs were also boiled
(CADP: 320 – 21 ; Sasson 2004 : 187 – 88 ). Ten of the 35 Yale recipes probably concern
bird dishes, including amursa ̄nu-pigeon broth (mê amursa ̄nu) and francolin (?) broth
(mê tarri), and two of these recipes involve birds’ gizzards (sˇisu ̄ rrum) and entrails (esru ̄)
(Bottéro 1995 : 48 , 52 , 73 – 80 ).
FishThe Babylonians ate many different freshwater fish, including those raised in manmade
ponds or moats, and some saltwater fish (CADN/ 2 : 338 – 39 ; Dalley 2002 : 81 – 82 ;
Charpin et al. 2004 : 822 – 23 ; Sasson 2004 : 194 ). At Mari fish is mentioned in general
(nu ̄ num) and by particular names, including carp (?) (arsuppum), large carp (pura ̄ dum),
eel-like fishes (kuppûm;girı ̄tum) and, most frequently, the highly prized kama ̄ rum-fish
(Reynolds 2002 : 222 ; Sasson 2004 : 193 – 94 ). Many fish names remain unidentified.
Fish could be preserved by salting, drying, smoking or making the fermented sauce
sˇiqqum, a household staple also made from locusts (Charpin et al. 2004 : 823 ; CAD
Sˇ/ 3 : 99 – 100 ). Four of the Yale recipes use this sauce (Bottéro 1995 : 161 ).
Other animals
Locusts, or grasshoppers when in their migratory stage, were a relatively common
foodstuff (types or stages: erbûm; s.ans.aror .sars.ar; erh
̆
izzum; ergilatum) and at Mari they
could be brought to the palace still alive in reed cages or already preserved (Sasson
2004 : 193 ). They could be processed into a fermented sauce (sˇiqqum) (see Fish above).
Honey from wild bees was a luxury item; (Curtis 2001 : 240 – 41 ; Sasson 2004 : 188 ;
for the usual sweeteners see Fruits, above). People ate crayfish or shrimp (ereb tâmti;
erbum) and there is evidence that turtles (raqqum; sˇeleppûm) were caught (Lion et al.
2000 ; Dalley 2002 : 82 ; Charpin et al. 2004 : 822 – 23 ; Sasson 2004 : 194 ).
FungiMost of our information comes from Mari where the highly prized seasonal truffles
(kam’a ̄ tumorkam’u ̄) and the similar gib’u ̄grew after rain and were sent to the palace
by regional officials (Sasson 2004 : 187 ).
— Frances Reynolds —