shows the huge range of cuneiform writing devoted to the subject, which ranges from
ration allocations, over lexical lists of food items, to collections of highly sophisticated
recipes. The important social role of ‘civilized’ food and drink is illustrated in literary
compositions, such as the Epic of Gilgamesh. Babylonian fields and orchards produced
a variety of cereals and vegetables, most importantly, the salt-tolerant barleys and
protein rich pulses, while domestic and wild animals, from sheep to turtles, provided
meat which benefited mainly the elite strata of society. Babylonians were beer drinkers;
nutritious, made from clean water, it was a safe option in the unsanitary conditions
of the cities.
Agricultural productivity was the basis of the Babylonian economy, the subject of
Part III. Johannes Renger delivers a general introduction to theoretical issues raised
and presents an overview of the main forms of economic organization, from the oikos
economy of the forth and third millennia to the emergence of a tributary economy
at the beginning of the second millennium. He shows the reciprocity and redistribution
operated side by side throughout the entire history of Mesopotamia, with the first
operating primarily in the ‘countryside’, while redistribution was the preferred form
of operation for the large institutional establishments in the cities. Anne Goddeeris
concentrates on developments during the Old Babylonian period which saw the
integration of existing self-sufficient household into a patrimonial economy. Of
particular consequence was the move towards privatization, as the large institutions,
especially the palace, began to rely increasingly on managerial and risk-accepting
input from ‘the private sector’. While these developments helped to foster entrepren-
eurship and diversify the economy, they also led to unprecedented insolvency and
indebtedness which the many royal decrees sought to alleviate. Frans von Koppen’s
chapter follows with a closer look at some of the consequences of policies instigated
by the First Dynasty of Babylon and shows how the unification of the north and
south laid the basis for socio-economic conditions in Babylonia that were to endure
for centuries. Michael Jursa, addressing conditions during the first millennium, shows
how trends towards monetization of the economy increased, how growing urbanization
and population growth intensified agricultural production. The export trade, notably
of textiles, continued to bring in revenue in the form of silver. The institutional
households, especially temples, were struggling to keep up with diverse and vibrant
private firms. Cornelia Wunsch draws on the abundant archive material of one such
family firm, the Egibi, who were active in sixth and fifth centuries BC, during a time
that saw the end of Babylonian political independence and the beginning of Persian
rule. The documents allow a reconstruction of the strategies and opportunities of
such companies in their dealings with investors, the state and temples. The archives
also document family quarrels, legal challenges and the varying fortunes of subsequent
generations and thus allow an unusually detailed view into the world of the late
Babylonian business elite.
Part IV assembles contributions about the Babylonian socio-political world. The Czech
scholar Petr Charvát shows how Mesopotamian society was configured in the mid-
third millennium BC, during the Sumerian (Early Dynastic) period. The hierarchical
division structured with a ruler (king) at the top, an elite engaged in the administrative
and executive tasks of government, as well as private enterprise, commoners dependent
on large institutions and responsible for the provision of services and labour, and the
most exploited and underprivileged – enslaved prisoners of war at that time – also
— Gwendolyn Leick —