wealthy, although scenes in the Bayeux tapestry indicate that mail shirts in later times
were no longer so unattainable.
WEAPONS TRADEMost complete swords and spearheads are recovered from burials. They appear far less
common in settlement contexts where instead axes for different tasks, arrowheads and
single sword fittings may be found. The arrowheads and sword fragments testify to the
presence of weapons in individual households as well as the local manufacture and/or
repair of weapons. Although it can be difficult to distinguish between indigenous and
foreign production, some of the finest swords and spearheads were doubtless imported
(Solberg 1991 ; Martens 2004 ).
Trade in weapons is recorded and forbidden in a number of Frankish capitularies,
although apparently related to specific events rather than general export (Horn
Fuglesang 2000 ), and plunder or gift exchange are equally valid explanations for some
foreign swords in Scandinavia. The early Carolingian so-called ‘King’s sword’ from the
Hedeby boat-chamber grave was fully fitted when acquired; in other swords foreign
blades are combined with Scandinavian-type guards. Inscribed blades, many with the
name vlfberht or the word ingel, are widely distributed from Ireland in the west to
Russia in the east (see Geibig 1991 : 113 – 33 ). The inscriptions are rarely identical, and
obvious distortions or imitations suggest that they do not represent single workshops
in western Europe but rather designations of quality that could be imitated, also in
Scandinavia (Andresen 1993 ).
RITUAL CONTEXTIn spite of close interregional contacts leading to exchange and use of similar weapons,
traditions of deposition differed within Scandinavia. Thus the percentage of weapon
graves in relation to the corpus of known burials varies considerably, and not least the
sheer number of weapons from Norway is impressive ( Jakobsson 1992 ; Martens 2003 ).
Based on the combination of artefacts selected for burial at a local or regional level, the
role and meaning of weapons in the burial rite – and in the living society – were not
uniform across Scandinavia ( Jakobsson 1992 ; Pedersen 1997 ).
Visual quality as evident in the decorative use of contrasting metals was important,
and weapons probably had considerable value not only in battle but also as symbols of
power, rank and wealth. Swords are often singled out, and their importance is supported
by numerous sources, among them the highly ritualised scenes depicted in illuminated
manuscripts. However, axes and spears most likely held similar functions (Trotzig 1985 ;
Näsman 1991 ). Although not Scandinavian, one of the most renowned spearheads of the
time was the Carolingian sancta lancea belonging to the imperial insignia. Dated to
c. 800 , the spearhead was copied c. 1000 and presented by Otto III to Bolesław Chrobry
of Poland in return for relics of St Adalbert, an act of great religious as well as political
significance (Bernward von Hildesheim no. II- 33 ).
Apart from burial, other ritual acts may have involved weapons. Surprisingly many
stray finds from Denmark are recovered from wetland areas – bogs, lakes or rivers – and
although conflict or extensive traffic near major crossing points and important settle-
ments may explain certain finds, others appear to be sacrificial offerings (Lund 2003 ).
–– Anne Pedersen––