More frequently occurring habitative names are those discussed by Nicolaisen
( 2001 : 112 – 22 ) ending in -staðir, -setr and -sætr and -bólstaðr. Staðir-names probably
denoted small settlement units and often contained personal names, for example
Grimista (Grímr), Oddsta (Oddr) and Girlsta (Geirhildr) in Shetland and Germiston (Geir-
mundr), Cairston (Kjarrekr) and Grimeston (Grímr) in Orkney. Settlement names in -setr
and -sætr occur rather more commonly, particularly in Shetland. The elements they
contain here are sometimes personal names, as in Grimsetter (Grímr), Frakkaster (Frakki)
and Kettlester (Ketill), but it is more frequent for them to contain topographical terms
such as Crooksetter (krókr ‘curve’), Gilsetter (gil ‘narrow valley’) and Vatsetter (vatn ‘lake’), or
terms for animals or birds, for example Oxensetter (yxn), Swinister (svín), Russeter (hross
‘horse’) and Goster (gás ‘goose’). In Orkney the same kinds of formations appear, although
personal names there are of rare occurrence, for example Grímr in Grymesetter, and Snjallr
in Snelsetter. There are many topographical terms such as Melsetter (melr ‘sand’) and
Inksetter (eng ‘meadow’). The most commonly occurring element is bólstaðr but its repre-
sentation varies greatly. In Shetland it occurs as Bousta as a simplex name and as -bister in
compounds, for example Wadbister (vað ‘ford’), Nesbister (nes ‘headland’), Fladdabister
(flati ‘flat’). In Orkney it occurs as Busta and Bousta as a simplex name and as -bster and
- bist and -bust in compound names, for example Ellibister (perhaps elf ‘elf’), Skelbister
(perhaps skáli ‘shieling’) (Crawford 1995 : 57 – 8 ). It is extremely rare for personal
names to be compounded with the element bólstaðr anywhere in Scotland (Gammeltoft
2001 : 275 ).
Whereas the Norse place names in the Northern Isles finally became embedded in
English, the Norse names elsewhere in Scotland passed through a Gaelic stage before
reaching English (Nicolaisen 1982 : 98 ; 2001 : 156 ). In the ninth and tenth centuries
Gaelic and Norse must have confronted each other in Caithness and the Hebrides, as
also in the Isle of Man. Norse place names are in fact found all round the coastal areas of
north-western and western Scotland and in the Outer and Inner Hebrides and in Man,
dating probably from the tenth century to the twelfth to thirteenth centuries.
In contrast to the names ending in -bý in the Danelaw, related names in northern
Scotland are fairly rare. Possible examples in Orkney are Trenaby (containing Thránd or
the related tribal name), Cattaby (containing Káti or Ko ̨tt) and Yesnaby (of doubtful
origin) (Fellows-Jensen 1984 : 156 ). Two personal names are compounded with bær in
Caithness: Celtic Dungal in Duncansby and Cano in Canisbay (Figure 28. 6 ). Other
names of this type include Europie, probably containing a feminine name Jórun in Lewis,
and Golspie (Goldespy 1330 ) in Sutherland, whose first element is of uncertain origin. In
the Isle of Man, however, Norse personal names compounded with bý are more likely to
reflect Danelaw influence.
In the eastern part of Caithness, Norse place names are very similar to those in
Shetland and Orkney. Elsewhere, however, Gaelic-speaking settlers began to spread over
Scotland from the west and while Norse names occur fairly commonly on the northern
and western seaboard, the Outer Hebrides, the fertile islands of Coll and Tiree and the
Isle of Man, they are much less easily identifiable in the heavily Gaelicised areas in the
Inner Hebrides and mainland Scotland.
There is a fairly general distribution of topographical names, for example Reay (vrá
‘corner, nook’), Staxigoe (stakk-gjá ‘stack cleft’), Sanwick (sand-vík ‘sand bay’) and Murkle
(myrk-hól ‘dark hill’) in Caithness, Torrisdale (Þór(ir)s-dalr ‘Thór(ir)s valley’) and
Melness (mel-nes ‘sandy headland’) in Strathnaver, Migdale (*mjuk-dalr ‘glen with soft
–– chapter 28 : Scandinavian place names in the British Isles––