Sea coast and south-western Denmark remains significant through the centuries. It
seems reasonable that earlier activities continued into later periods. The numismatic
material from the late tenth century indicates that persons and groups in the central
parts of the Frisian area are again very active in trade directed towards the Baltic and
beyond, to north-eastern Europe. An interesting confirmation of these indications is
provided by two inscriptions on runestones at Sigtuna, dating to the mid-eleventh
century, providing evidence of the existence of a guild of people trading with Frisia or
with Frisians.
The spiritual influence of the Frisians on Scandinavian culture is very difficult to
ascertain. However, the seemingly sudden occurrence of some mythological themes in
the eighth century could find its explanation in this way. We are here especially con-
cerned with the Wayland myth and the Vo ̨lsunga/Niebelungen motif. The iconography
of the pictorial stones of Gotland shows the familiarity with these motifs on the island in
the second half of the eighth century, and we may suppose that they were disseminated
also along the mainland coasts.
THE CENTRAL PART OF THE MEROVINGIAN AND
CAROLINGIAN KINGDOM AND EMPIREThe cultural influence of the central part of the Merovingian and Carolingian realm
(major parts of Neustria and north-western Austrasia) on large parts of Europe was huge.
Already in the early days of this political formation the ruling dynasties, the high
aristocracy and their entourage developed an exclusive elite culture mainly from
elements of Late Antiquity but also from contemporary Byzantine culture. Some
Barbaric traditions were also included but did not prevail in all parts of this area. From
the beginning of the sixth century the Christian Church, its major institutions and its
high officials were integrated into this culture. From the very beginning the influence of
this elite culture was strong on the other side of the Channel in Anglo-Saxon England
(Hawkes 1982 ). Along the North Sea coast it was important in Frisia and in Lower
Saxony and Westphalia. The latter parts were also reached from the south. Coming up
from the south-west it also had quite early an impact on Scandinavia. How much of this
influence was secondary and how much was direct (some direct connection cannot be
ignored), is a complicated question. Beginning in the eighth century but remarkably
powerfully in the ninth century these influences reached the central European Slavs and
other Slav communities in the Carpathian Basin and in the northern Balkans. Although
this process must mainly be studied with the help of material traces we should, of course,
from the beginning, consider the immaterial side of it much more important. Ideas of
kingship, empire and dominion also on a lower level as well as socio-economic principles
for the organisation of landed wealth through an elaborate estate economy were signifi-
cant. These ideas gradually transformed the political and economic structures of the
Carolingian periphery. This is not to say that the process of transmission was simple.
The disseminated elements of political organisation and an aristocratic lifestyle were
sometimes indeed partly rejected, but always locally modified and integrated in local
cultural tradition. In Scandinavia, especially in the south-west, we can note an increase
in this influence in the eighth century (Arbman 1937 ; Arwidsson 1942 ). However,
the real breakthrough comes only in the tenth century and is connected with the
Saxon kingdom (see below). The study of this very complex cultural influence from
–– Johan Callmer––