Invitation to Psychology

146 Chapter 4 Neurons, Hormones, and the Brain

aggressive but wildly popular sports be modified to

reduce the risk? Would club owners and fans stand for

such changes? Should children and teenagers, whose

brains are rapidly developing, be prevented from play-

ing these sports?

The findings you have read about in this chapter

teach us that who we are depends in part on well

functioning brain cells and nervous-system chemi-

cals—and when they fail to function properly, the

consequences can be profound. (Remember Phineas

Gage, whose devastating brain injury changed his per-

sonality.) The brain’s plasticity is an awesome thing,

but it does have limits. Each of us is born with just

one brain, so we had better treat it with respect! If

we do not, there are no brain transplants or prosthetic

brains available to help us out.

The study of the brain provides insights into the

abilities that those of us with healthy brains take for

granted every day. Nearly every week, discoveries by

neuroscientists make headlines. Still, their findings

should not divert attention from the many other influ-

ences that make us who we are: our relationships, our

experiences, our place in society, our culture. Keep in

your mind (as well as in your brain) that analyzing a

human being in terms of physiology alone is like ana-

lyzing the Eiffel Tower solely in terms of the materials

that were used to build it. Even if we could monitor ev-

ery cell and circuit of the brain, we would still need to

understand the circumstances, thoughts, and cultural

rules that affect whether we are gripped by hatred,

consumed by grief, lifted by love, or transported by joy.

depression, anxiety, and even suicidal tendencies.

Many players suffer chronic pain from frequent inju-

ries. Also, as they age, they may feel the sting that

comes from being out of the limelight. Some sports

fans and commentators are therefore concerned that

there has been a rush to judgment about the dangers of

repeated “hits.” However, a recent study of 85 donated

brains from deceased male athletes, veterans, and ci-

vilians with histories of repeated traumatic brain injury

showed clear evidence of chronic traumatic encepha-

lopathy in 68 of the brains—strong evidence of a link

between brain trauma and CTE (McKee et al., 2013).

(This study had a control group, and the participants

had died of a variety of causes, not just suicide.)

Work on the brains of living athletes is also

starting to be done. A small PET scan study of five

ex-NFL players who had symptoms of depression,

mood swings, and cognitive problems found evidence

of chronic traumatic encephalopathy in their brains

(Small, et al., 2013). Another study found at least

short-term cognitive deficits in high-school soccer

players after a single practice session that involved

heading the ball (Zhang et al., 2013).

No one knows yet how great the risk of CTE is

in contact sports, or whether certain individuals are

especially susceptible. However, the evidence to date

supports the idea that repeated concussion during

sports can cause damage that may have serious psy-

chological consequences, and that such damage is far

more prevalent than has previously been realized or

acknowledged. What are the implications of this dis-

covery? Should the rules of football, hockey, and other

Taking Psychology With You

Cosmetic Neurology:

Tinkering With the

Brain

Should healthy people be permitted, even
encouraged, to take “brain boosters” or
“neuroenhancers,” drugs that will sharpen
concentration and memory? What about us-
ing electrical brain stimulation to rev up a
person’s mental abilities? If having cosmetic
surgery can change parts of your body that
you don’t like, what’s wrong with allowing
cosmetic neurology to tinker with parts of
your brain that you don’t like?
For centuries, people have been seeking
ways to stimulate their brains to work more
efficiently, with caffeine being an especially

popular drug of choice for this purpose.

But people who dislike coffee don’t com-

plain about the unfair advantage that cof-

fee drinkers have. Likewise, no one has a

problem with the finding that omega-3s,

found in some kinds of fish, may help

protect against age-related mental decline

(Beydoun et al., 2007; van Gelder et al.,

2007). But when it comes to prescription

medications that increase alertness or ap-

pear to enhance memory and other cognitive

functions, it’s another kettle of fish oil, so

to speak.

What questions should critical thinkers

ask, and what kind of evidence would be

needed, to make wise decisions about using

such medications? A new interdisciplinary

specialty, neuroethics, has been formed to

address the many legal, ethical, and sci-

entific questions raised by brain research,

including those raised by the development

of neuroenhancing drugs (Gazzaniga, 2005).

Much of the buzz has focused on Provigil

(modafinil), a drug approved for treating nar-

colepsy and other sleep disorders, and the

amphetamines Ritalin and Adderall, approved

for attention deficit disorders. Some stu-

dents, pilots, business people, and jet-lagged

travelers are taking one or another of these

drugs, either obtaining them illegally from

friends or the Internet or getting their own

prescriptions. Most of these users claim the

drugs help them learn better and stay alert.

One review of the literature concluded that

Provigil can indeed improve memory for stud-

ied material (Smith & Farah, 2011), although